Gemini + PDF

apply.py

import asyncio
import base64

import dotenv
import pymupdf
from langchain_core.messages import HumanMessage, SystemMessage
from langchain_core.messages.base import BaseMessage
from langchain_google_vertexai import ChatVertexAI

dotenv.load_dotenv(override=True)


async def run_llm_on_pdf_pages(
    pdf: pymupdf.Document,
    llm: ChatVertexAI,
    system_prompt: str,
    user_prompt: str,
) -> dict[int, BaseMessage]:
    tasks = [
        run_llm_on_pdf_page(
            pdf=pdf,
            page_number=page_number,
            llm=llm,
            system_prompt=system_prompt,
            user_prompt=user_prompt,
        )
        for page_number in range(len(pdf))
    ]

    _results = await asyncio.gather(*tasks)
    results = {page: r for page, r in zip(range(len(pdf)), _results)}
    return results


async def run_llm_on_pdf_page(
    pdf: pymupdf.Document,
    page_number: int,
    llm: ChatVertexAI,
    system_prompt: str,
    user_prompt: str,
) -> BaseMessage:
    pdf_page = await extract_page_as_bytes(pdf, page_number)
    pdf_base64 = base64.b64encode(pdf_page).decode('utf-8')
    result = await run_llm_on_pdf_base64(pdf_base64, llm, system_prompt, user_prompt)
    return result


async def run_llm_on_pdf_base64(
    pdf_base64: str,
    llm: ChatVertexAI,
    system_prompt: str,
    user_prompt: str,
) -> BaseMessage:
    messages = [
        SystemMessage(content=system_prompt),
        HumanMessage(
            [
                {
                    'type': 'media',
                    'data': pdf_base64,
                    'mime_type': 'application/pdf',
                },
                user_prompt,
            ]
        ),
    ]
    result = await llm.ainvoke(messages)
    return result


async def extract_page_as_bytes(pdf: pymupdf.Document, page_number: int) -> bytes:
    new = pymupdf.open()
    new.insert_pdf(pdf, from_page=page_number, to_page=page_number)
    _bytes = new.write()
    new.close()
    return _bytes

combine.py

import dataclasses
from collections.abc import Sequence

import jinja2
from langchain_core.language_models.chat_models import BaseChatModel
from langchain_core.messages import HumanMessage, SystemMessage

_SUMMARIZER_PROMPT = """

The following are {{ n_results }} individual string results from a process:

{{ combined_input }}

Please provide a comprehensive summary that:
1. Identifies the main themes and patterns across all results
2. Highlights any significant outliers or contradictions
3. Consolidates similar findings
4. Presents the most important insights in a clear, structured way

Your summary should be concise but thorough, capturing the essence of all results.
"""

_SUMMARIZER_TEMPLATE = jinja2.Template(_SUMMARIZER_PROMPT)


@dataclasses.dataclass(frozen=True)
class Result:
    filename: str
    page_number: int
    text: str


async def summarize_large_result_set(
    results: Sequence[Result] | Sequence[str],
    llm: BaseChatModel,
    batch_size: int = 25,
    max_tokens: int = 1500,
    depth: int = 0,
    max_summaries_per_level: int = 20,
) -> str:
    """
    Recursively summarize very large sets of results by processing in batches and then
    summarizing the summaries until a single coherent summary is produced.

    Args:
        results: List of string results to summarize
        llm: LangChain BaseChatModel instance
        batch_size: Number of results to process in each batch at the leaf level
        depth: Current recursion depth (used internally)
        max_summaries_per_level: Maximum number of summaries that can be processed at once

    Returns:
        A consolidated summary of all input results
    """
    # Handle empty or small result sets
    if not results:
        return 'No results to summarize.'

    # Base case: if we have few enough results to summarize directly
    if len(results) <= batch_size:
        return await summarize_results(results, llm)

    # TODO: run this loop async
    # Process in batches
    batch_summaries = []
    for i in range(0, len(results), batch_size):
        batch = results[i : i + batch_size]

        # Format identifier changes based on depth
        level_prefix = f'Level {depth} - ' if depth > 0 else ''

        batch_summary = await summarize_results(batch, llm)
        batch_summaries.append(
            f'{level_prefix}Summary of results {i + 1}-{i + len(batch)}: {batch_summary}'
        )

    # Recursive case: if we have too many summaries to process at once, recurse
    if len(batch_summaries) > max_summaries_per_level:
        return await summarize_large_result_set(
            batch_summaries,
            llm,
            batch_size=max_summaries_per_level,
            max_tokens=max_tokens,
            depth=depth + 1,
            max_summaries_per_level=max_summaries_per_level,
        )

    # Final case: we can create one summary from our current batch of summaries
    final_summary = await summarize_results(batch_summaries, llm)

    return final_summary


async def summarize_results(
    results: Sequence[Result] | Sequence[str],
    llm: BaseChatModel,
    user_template: jinja2.Template = _SUMMARIZER_TEMPLATE,
) -> str:
    """Summarize and consolidate multiple string results using an LLM.

    Returns:
    --------
        A consolidated summary of the inputs
    """
    if isinstance(results[0], str):
        combined_input = '\n\n'.join([result for result in results])
    else:
        combined_input = '\n\n'.join(
            [
                f'Result {i + 1}: {result.filename = }, {result.page_number = }\n text: {result.text}'
                for i, result in enumerate(results)
            ]
        )

    prompt = user_template.render(
        n_results=len(results),
        combined_input=combined_input,
    )
    return await _summarize(prompt, llm)


async def _summarize(prompt: str, llm: BaseChatModel) -> str:
    messages = [
        SystemMessage(
            content='You are a helpful assistant that summarizes multiple results into a consolidated insight.'
        ),
        HumanMessage(content=prompt),
    ]

    response = await llm.ainvoke(messages)
    return response.content

example.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from itsai.document_extraction import map_prompts, reduce_results"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "/home/shiv/repos/ITSKS-Conversational-AI-SEARCH-FASTAPI/.venv/lib/python3.12/site-packages/google_crc32c/__init__.py:29: RuntimeWarning: As the c extension couldn't be imported, `google-crc32c` is using a pure python implementation that is significantly slower. If possible, please configure a c build environment and compile the extension\n",
      "  warnings.warn(_SLOW_CRC32C_WARNING, RuntimeWarning)\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 1,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import dotenv\n",
    "from langchain_google_vertexai import ChatVertexAI\n",
    "\n",
    "from modules import vertexai\n",
    "dotenv.load_dotenv(override=True)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import pymupdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "creds = vertexai.load_credentials()\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "llm = ChatVertexAI(\n",
    "    model='gemini-2.0-flash-001',\n",
    "    temperature=0,\n",
    "    project=creds.project_id,\n",
    "    location='us-east4',\n",
    "    credentials=creds,\n",
    ")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Run"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "doc = pymupdf.open(\n",
    "    '/home/shiv/repos/ITSKS-Conversational-AI-SEARCH-FASTAPI/World Development Report 2024.pdf'\n",
    ")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "system = \"\"\"\n",
    "You are an expert economist, trained at analysing and researching economic reports.\n",
    "\"\"\"\n",
    "\n",
    "user = \"\"\"\n",
    "Identify and extract all content related to taxation from the provided context.\n",
    "Just return the content, don't add any further text.\n",
    "If you are unable to find any information related to the query in the provided context, return <NONE>.\n",
    "\"\"\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 26,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "result = await map_prompts.run_llm_on_pdf_page(doc, 5, llm, system, user)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 27,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "AIMessage(content='<NONE>\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 4, 'total_token_count': 1361, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 4}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0002578755374997854, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-5b92bb43-4d9a-41e7-8b70-45dc5d9724fb-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 4, 'total_tokens': 1361})"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 27,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "result"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 10,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "full_doc_extract = await map_prompts.run_llm_on_pdf_pages(doc, llm, system, user)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "{13: AIMessage(content='201 8.3 The number of countries creating special enforcement units for large taxpayers has increased\\n209 8.6 Indirect carbon pricing such as energy taxes is the strongest price signal\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 41, 'total_token_count': 1398, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 41}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.01774225583890589, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-bcb585ce-4469-4ff7-b157-ca2148fc8c15-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 41, 'total_tokens': 1398}),\n",
       " 24: AIMessage(content='Interventions that target errant incumbents to destroy harmful arrangements include adopting competition laws and ensuring the effectiveness of competition authorities, as well as using fiscal policy to make elites contestable.\\nTo decouple carbon emissions from a growing economy, middle-income countries can effectively price carbon emissions and scale up deployment of low-carbon energy by respecting the merit order-the sequence followed by grid operators selling power to the market.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 226, 'uri': 'https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2024', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 228, 'end_index': 477, 'uri': 'https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2024', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 83, 'total_token_count': 1440, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 83}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.008014399603188756, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-b7c5a2d1-f355-437a-8f18-dbf4dfddd947-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 83, 'total_tokens': 1440}),\n",
       " 31: AIMessage(content='TCP total carbon price\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 5, 'total_token_count': 1362, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 5}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.17331584692001342, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-cb246a76-3b85-43b6-8a55-1a9bf758ca75-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 5, 'total_tokens': 1362}),\n",
       " 39: AIMessage(content='Firms received tax credits for royalty payments, and family-owned conglomerates, or chaebols, took the lead in copying technologies from abroad-primarily Japan.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 154, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 34, 'total_token_count': 1391, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 34}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.03281922200146843, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-3fa9cf43-8a97-450d-8feb-693b6d6b1f61-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 34, 'total_tokens': 1391}),\n",
       " 40: AIMessage(content='Note: Panel b shows the adoption subsidy rate alongside the innovation (R&D) subsidy rate, calculated using the tax credit\\nrate and the corporate tax rate. For example, a 30 percent subsidy rate indicates that firms can receive a reimbursement\\nequivalent to 30 percent of their expenditures on adoption fees or R&D. R&D = research and development.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 343, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 77, 'total_token_count': 1434, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 77}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.003937827689307076, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-a9e853bb-7b83-4854-b345-4ee337270930-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 77, 'total_tokens': 1434}),\n",
       " 41: AIMessage(content='Notably, it imposed\\na 10 percent marginal tax rate on payments for\\ninternational intellectual property. These tax rev-\\nenues were used to subsidize innovation in tar-\\ngeted sectors, including biotechnology, aviation,\\nhealth, and agriculture.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 54, 'total_token_count': 1411, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 54}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.005491012776339495, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-8591fd91-1dec-4e8f-b900-332d2184d4cb-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 54, 'total_tokens': 1411}),\n",
       " 49: AIMessage(content='domestic firms in sectors facing export tariff reduc-\\ntions began to invest more in computing tech-\\nnology and in technology transfers and patents.20\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 31, 'total_token_count': 1388, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 31}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.039678577453859394, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-831af0fd-ffaf-46e5-96ae-b5c2ffe0b2e8-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 31, 'total_tokens': 1388}),\n",
       " 50: AIMessage(content='Even where tax codes do not create explicit pro-\\nvisions based on firm size, middle-income coun-\\ntries may be creating a practical subsidy to SMEs\\nthrough size-dependent tax enforcement—that\\nis, governments with weak tax collection capacity\\nmay concentrate enforcement on larger firms.28\\nIn Mexico, eliminating distortions created by\\nsize-dependent taxation policies favoring small\\nfirms could boost output by 9 percent.29 In Chile,\\nChina, and India, reductions in distortions helped\\nthese economies close the gap between actual and\\npotential productivity by 10 percent.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'start_index': 103, 'end_index': 565, 'title': 'Your prompt', 'uri': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 121, 'total_token_count': 1478, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 121}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0035656887637682197, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-0cb9003a-6da0-4bf9-9469-5c3c20eeb225-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 121, 'total_tokens': 1478}),\n",
       " 53: AIMessage(content='Digital data on payments, receipts, taxes, and\\nloan repayments all make it possible to assess\\nfinancial credibility.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 24, 'total_token_count': 1381, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 24}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.01715778186917305, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-22589365-f970-4ecf-92ff-99e5f07298f5-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 24, 'total_tokens': 1381}),\n",
       " 55: AIMessage(content='Governments could also offer firms tax incentives\\nfor collaborating with universities.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 15, 'total_token_count': 1372, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 15}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0044456471999486285, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-8093216a-1571-4404-8ca6-ee64ef886e16-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 15, 'total_tokens': 1372}),\n",
       " 56: AIMessage(content='Estimates suggest that middle-income\\ncountries account for 93 percent of\\nexplicit fossil fuel subsidies.4º A promising\\napproach is to consider the concept of\\ntotal carbon price (TCP) to assess the\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 44, 'total_token_count': 1401, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 44}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0109156918796626, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-b4c17508-4459-44df-b605-22b23911053a-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 44, 'total_tokens': 1401}),\n",
       " 57: AIMessage(content='price signal from a combination of direct\\nand indirect carbon pricing instruments,\\nincluding energy excise taxes and fuel\\nsubsidies.50\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 134, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 28, 'total_token_count': 1385, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 28}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.027872607111930847, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-55aaa2dd-10ac-4c5e-8ee1-4fab116328e2-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 28, 'total_tokens': 1385}),\n",
       " 59: AIMessage(content='50. Agnolucci, Gencer, and Heine (2024). TCP components\\nlabeled \"energy taxes\" and \"energy subsidies\" are\\nbased on \"net\" computed values (as proxies for the\\nactual values of energy taxes and subsidies) due to\\ndata limitations. Energy taxes and subsidies are esti-\\nmated based on the \"price gap\" between retail prices\\nand supply costs for a particular energy carrier used in\\na specific sector in a jurisdiction in a given year. The net\\nenergy taxes and subsidies are then aggregated across\\nsectors, fuels, and countries to yield a global value.\\nMore details on this methodology are provided in\\nAgnolucci, Gencer, and Heine (2024).\\n\\nAgnolucci, Paolo, Defne Gencer, and Dirk Heine. 2024.\\n\"Total Carbon Pricing for Energy Consumption: The\\nImportance of Energy Taxes and Subsidies.\" ESMAP\\nTechnical Report, Energy Subsidy Reform in Action\\nSeries, World Bank, Washington, DC.\\n\\nAkcigit, Ufuk, Salomé Baslandze, and Stefanie Stantcheva.\\n2016. \"Taxation and the International Mobility of\\nInventors.\" American Economic Review 106 (10): 2930-81.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 260, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 270, 'end_index': 623, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 631, 'end_index': 860, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 871, 'end_index': 1032, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 274, 'total_token_count': 1631, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 274}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.004037082195281982, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-c29c3304-2385-4444-b08e-7b4a04ceb5a9-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 274, 'total_tokens': 1631}),\n",
       " 60: AIMessage(content='Bachas, Pierre, Roberto N. Fattal Jaef, and Anders\\nJensen. 2019. \"Size-Dependent Tax Enforcement\\nand Compliance: Global Evidence and Aggregate\\nImplications.\" Journal of Development Economics 140\\n(September): 203-22.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 177, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 63, 'total_token_count': 1420, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 63}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.00044257380068302155, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-14304673-806c-479b-8967-44af571030be-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 63, 'total_tokens': 1420}),\n",
       " 69: AIMessage(content=\"Reclassifying levels based on fiscal capacity. Ravallion (2009) argues that levels of devel-\\nopment should be assessed based on countries' internal capacities for redistribution\\n(through taxes) in favor of their poorest citizens. Similarly, Ceriani and Verme (2014)\\npropose a measure of a country's capacity to reduce its own poverty levels and show\\nhow these tools can be used to guide budget or aid allocations.\\n\", additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'start_index': 100, 'end_index': 409, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 96, 'total_token_count': 1453, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 96}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0030268095433712006, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-45ece7fe-4848-4325-af6d-77318e055ee4-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 96, 'total_tokens': 1453}),\n",
       " 72: AIMessage(content='it offered tax incentives;\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 6, 'total_token_count': 1363, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 6}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.13049266735712686, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-298bf12f-ff30-42b4-87d3-40378c75a10b-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 6, 'total_tokens': 1363}),\n",
       " 77: AIMessage(content='Ravallion, Martin. 2009. \"Do Poorer Countries Have Less\\nCapacity for Redistribution?\" Policy Research Working\\nPaper 5046, World Bank, Washington, DC.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 146, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 44, 'total_token_count': 1401, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 44}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0010236789557066832, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-b52bf2f6-da0e-4d7d-8685-eb18c3d858a7-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 44, 'total_tokens': 1401}),\n",
       " 88: AIMessage(content='Korea subsidized the adoption of foreign technologies and innovation through tax credits. Specifically, firms received tax credits for royalty payments or research and development (R&D) expenditures.\\nMalaysia offered a spectrum of tax incentives to attract FDI through the Promotion of Investment Act in 1986.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 193, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 58, 'total_token_count': 1415, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 58}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.013127436925624979, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-e5307ce8-e2eb-4f33-92c7-69ee41bcb1cc-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 58, 'total_tokens': 1415}),\n",
       " 91: AIMessage(content='Note: Panel b shows the adoption subsidy rate alongside the innovation (R&D) subsidy rate, calculated using the tax credit\\nrate and the corporate tax rate. For example, a 30 percent subsidy rate indicates that firms can receive a reimbursement\\nequivalent to 30 percent of their expenditures on adoption fees or R&D. R&D = research and development.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 343, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 77, 'total_token_count': 1434, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 77}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.009651849796245624, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-b6f76bc3-a849-49fc-bc49-8037e63de93b-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 77, 'total_tokens': 1434}),\n",
       " 93: AIMessage(content='lower tax burdens\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 4, 'total_token_count': 1361, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 4}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.1253354549407959, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-ff60362e-37d1-4bce-9681-2cc9da930876-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 4, 'total_tokens': 1361}),\n",
       " 104: AIMessage(content='Note: Measuring trade policies is fraught with challenges, and the GTA database may overrepresent countries that\\nissue a relatively high quantity of legislative documents or those with greater regulatory transparency. The bars indicate\\nglobal trade policies introduced in the corresponding year. Helpful trade policies include interventions that liberalize on a\\nnondiscriminatory basis or improve the transparency of a relevant policy. Harmful trade policies include interventions that\\ndiscriminate against foreign commercial interests. \"8541\" and \"8542\" refer to the four-digit Harmonized System codes for\\nsemiconductors. See Harmonized System (dashboard), World Customs Organization, Brussels, https://www.wcotradetools\\n.org/en/harmonized-system.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 736, 'title': 'Your prompt', 'start_index': 0, 'uri': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 149, 'total_token_count': 1506, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 149}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.011127580732307178, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-716c5173-0cc0-4c0c-8929-c4e0e309c8f6-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 149, 'total_tokens': 1506}),\n",
       " 106: AIMessage(content='Interest expense (% of general government revenues)\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 9, 'total_token_count': 1366, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 9}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.12038675944010417, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-ab6a9c24-36bb-4a29-a4fa-b37953bfedf7-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 9, 'total_tokens': 1366}),\n",
       " 127: AIMessage(content='By using size to screen which firms should be pro-\\ntected and which firms should be penalized, pol-\\nicy makers end up taxing firms that create value\\n(box 4.2).\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 41, 'total_token_count': 1398, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 41}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.008562533593759305, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-7ff3a7b3-1c43-4c76-add9-7ba6f328ce28-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 41, 'total_tokens': 1398}),\n",
       " 128: AIMessage(content='In some countries, smaller firms below a specific size are exempt from regulations or tax-\\nation. In other countries, once the firm exceeds a specified size threshold, it faces higher\\ntaxes and more regulations.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 43, 'total_token_count': 1400, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 43}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.003948835439460222, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-3f9f16ec-b157-4495-940d-928958335457-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 43, 'total_tokens': 1400}),\n",
       " 129: AIMessage(content=\"Mexico. Mexico's income tax law created REPECO (Régimen de Pequeños\\nContribuyentes), a special provision for small businesses based on their level of sales. For\\nordinary firms whose sales exceed the threshold, the tax on capital income amounts to\\n38 percent (28 percent for the government and 10 percent for profit-sharing with employ-\\nees). Firms with annual sales below US$163,000 (Mex$2 million) do not have to pay the\\ncapital tax, but instead pay a 2 percent sales tax, with 7.5 percent of the 2 percent sales\\ntax directed to the profit-sharing scheme. Once the sales of a REPECO firm exceed the\\nthreshold, it cannot become a REPECO firm again.a\\n\", additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 331, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 342, 'end_index': 649, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 163, 'total_token_count': 1520, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 163}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0011055100183545445, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-e056467c-6537-47c6-b81d-d4709eacbd30-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 163, 'total_tokens': 1520}),\n",
       " 130: AIMessage(content='France. Labor laws in France apply special provisions to firms with more than 10, 11,\\n20, or 50 employees. In particular, as a firm reaches 50 employees, a committee for\\nhygiene, safety, and work conditions must be formed and trained; a works council must\\nbe formed and meet at least every other month; and a higher payroll tax rate, which goes\\nfrom 0.9 percent to 1.5 percent, subsidizes worker training.\\nRepublic of Korea. When a firm is classified as a small or medium enterprise (SME), it\\ncan receive about 160 benefits from the SME support policy. Benefits include differential\\ncorporate tax rates, tax relief benefits, and government-guaranteed loans for SMEs.h\\nAnd,\\nin France, firms with more than 50 workers pay\\na higher payroll tax rate and must comply with\\nadditional regulations. 10 Such programs create\\nTurnover taxes that tax intermediate and\\ncapital goods and corporate taxes, even when\\nset at uniform rates, are also examples of size-\\ndependent policies in the way in which they are\\nenforced. Larger firms are more likely to face tax\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'start_index': 107, 'end_index': 401, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 406, 'end_index': 668, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 668, 'end_index': 811, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 815, 'end_index': 946, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 250, 'total_token_count': 1607, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 250}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.00927593231201172, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-d1c1984d-eb17-437d-af51-2b6f22205c35-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 250, 'total_tokens': 1607}),\n",
       " 132: AIMessage(content='More broadly, these rules of thumb impose a\\nhefty tax on productive firms, a practice known\\nas \"taxing the good\" (figure 4.11). By discouraging\\nthe expansion and growth of firms, these policies\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 184, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 49, 'total_token_count': 1406, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 49}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0016680977174213954, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-2692edf6-6974-4d54-a3eb-e9faf869db0e-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 49, 'total_tokens': 1406}),\n",
       " 137: AIMessage(content='Bachas, Pierre, Roberto N. Fattal Jaef, and Anders\\nJensen. 2019. \"Size-Dependent Tax Enforcement\\nand Compliance: Global Evidence and Aggregate\\nImplications.\" Journal of Development Economics 140\\n(September): 203-22.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 177, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 63, 'total_token_count': 1420, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 63}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0002097908023094374, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-e5f4f57a-06fa-4df1-b419-f6124d764f59-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 63, 'total_tokens': 1420}),\n",
       " 147: AIMessage(content=\"Teachers then pay union fees from their salaries,\\nand unions contribute a portion of this revenue\\nto politicians' campaigns.\\n\", additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 122, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 25, 'total_token_count': 1382, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 25}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.002254350036382675, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-d34f1914-092e-4bfb-92dd-ac375b7768d3-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 25, 'total_tokens': 1382}),\n",
       " 162: AIMessage(content='Akcigit, Ufuk, John Grigsby, Tom Nicholas, and Stefanie\\nStantcheva. 2022. \"Taxation and Innovation in the\\nTwentieth Century.\" Quarterly Journal of Economics\\n137 (1): 329-85.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 171, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 61, 'total_token_count': 1418, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 61}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0001816813696603306, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-197fa1c7-9054-4db6-a1b5-20b570aceb80-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 61, 'total_tokens': 1418}),\n",
       " 170: AIMessage(content='The IRA could have large impacts on power sector investments and electricity prices, lowering retail electricity rates and resulting in negative prices in some wholesale markets.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'start_index': 19, 'end_index': 170, 'uri': 'https://www.nber.org/conferences/si-2023-environmental-energy-economics', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 29, 'total_token_count': 1386, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 29}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.05457109418408624, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-cb4895d1-5199-4f93-aaeb-9575febe8057-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 29, 'total_tokens': 1386}),\n",
       " 175: AIMessage(content='higher car-\\nbon pricing (as measured using the net effective\\ncarbon rate of the Organisation for Economic\\nCo-operation and Development, OECD)\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'start_index': 16, 'end_index': 138, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 31, 'total_token_count': 1388, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 31}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.008577158374171103, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-e16556cc-9325-4c8b-83a3-25d6928d867e-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 31, 'total_tokens': 1388}),\n",
       " 177: AIMessage(content='Although 80 percent of the global population lives in a country that imports fossil fuel, fossil fuel revenues are highly concentrated.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 133, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 26, 'total_token_count': 1383, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 26}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.05748281112084022, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-8913275e-fcd8-42b7-b970-1ede5a2a5f38-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 26, 'total_tokens': 1383}),\n",
       " 179: AIMessage(content=\"In addition, middle-income\\ncountries generally provide highly polluting\\nindustries with higher corporate tax incentives.\\nSuch incentives are particularly high in the Middle\\nEast and North Africa, as measured by the World\\nBank's Global Corporate Income Tax Incentives\\nDatabase.\\n\", additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 275, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 53, 'total_token_count': 1410, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 53}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.010480051895357528, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-d8148f6b-8593-4fff-bd12-ae6842a3d35e-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 53, 'total_tokens': 1410}),\n",
       " 180: AIMessage(content='as well as the need for carbon pricing to correct\\nfor the negative externality of carbon emissions.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 21, 'total_token_count': 1378, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 21}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.008987248653457278, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-730ce6a5-63f4-4bdb-92cf-78faa89bf0d9-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 21, 'total_tokens': 1378}),\n",
       " 187: AIMessage(content='42. Black et al. (2023). It is much more difficult to define the\\ntax benchmark. As a result, individual country data\\nshould not be compared or aggregated, and caution\\nshould be applied when comparing producer subsidies\\nacross countries.\\nAghion, Philippe, Antoine Dechezleprêtre, David Hémous,\\nRalf Martin, and John Van Reenen. 2016. \"Carbon Taxes,\\nPath Dependency, and Directed Technical Change:\\nEvidence from the Auto Industry.\" Journal of Political\\nEconomy 124 (1): 1-51.\\nAgnolucci, Paolo, Carolyn Fischer, Dirk Heine, Mariza\\nMontes de Oca Leon, Joseph Pryor, Kathleen Patroni,\\nand Stéphane Hallegatte. 2023. \"Measuring Total\\nCarbon Pricing.\" World Bank Research Observer. https://\\ndoi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkad009.\\nAgnolucci, Paolo, Defne Gencer, and Dirk Heine. 2024.\\n\"Total Carbon Pricing for Energy Consumption: The\\nImportance of Energy Taxes and Subsidies. Energy\\nSubsidy Reform in Action Series.\" ESMAP Technical\\nReport. Washington, DC: World Bank.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 233, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 255, 'end_index': 415, 'uri': 'http://www.econ.uzh.ch/en/people/faculty/hemous/research.html', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 353, 'end_index': 944, 'title': 'Your prompt', 'uri': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 270, 'total_token_count': 1627, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 270}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0024152000745137534, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-35091774-16d9-4dd3-9ffd-8aafcfa6c173-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 270, 'total_tokens': 1627}),\n",
       " 188: AIMessage(content='OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and\\nDevelopment). 2023. \"Effective Carbon Rates 2023:\\nPricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions through Taxes and\\nEmissions Trading.\" OECD Series on Carbon Pricing and\\nEnergy Taxation. OECD, Paris.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 231, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 55, 'total_token_count': 1412, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 55}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0005372864278880032, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-d6baac74-6fda-4b94-b5fa-6159fd6a7760-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 55, 'total_tokens': 1412}),\n",
       " 190: AIMessage(content='Instituting progressive tax policies to discipline incumbent elites while still incentivizing innovation will be needed as well.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 120, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 21, 'total_token_count': 1378, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 21}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.008521889646848043, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-32775f90-ccac-4b9f-81fa-ea424e5a8a13-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 21, 'total_tokens': 1378}),\n",
       " 199: AIMessage(content='These typically involve taxes, public debt, public procurement conditions, state support, and exemptions to legal frameworks.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 124, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 22, 'total_token_count': 1379, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 22}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.018128724260763687, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-cf2409b7-e89d-403c-8646-82fa230b7dda-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 22, 'total_tokens': 1379}),\n",
       " 202: AIMessage(content='Governments can use various options that range from free state-provided care to offering providers and parents financial subsidies, tax incentives, or other forms of support.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 169, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 32, 'total_token_count': 1389, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 32}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0031244480051100254, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-0779dafa-ff29-407d-a28a-7a530495929a-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 32, 'total_tokens': 1389}),\n",
       " 205: AIMessage(content='However, mixed results\\nhave emerged from promoting specific industries\\nor sectors through tax breaks, direct subsidies,\\nimport tariff exemptions, cheap credit, dedicated\\ninfrastructure, or the bundling of all of these in\\nexport zones.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 233, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 47, 'total_token_count': 1404, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 47}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.028657786389614675, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-6e856fb7-8c69-4236-8d51-204430c9d497-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 47, 'total_tokens': 1404}),\n",
       " 206: AIMessage(content=\"For example, in Pakistan increases in upstream markets' tariff\\nduties reduced the productivity of firms in the\\ndownstream markets.\\n\", additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 126, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 27, 'total_token_count': 1384, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 27}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.02382685078514947, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-91d685fc-e999-44d0-b853-a8a225e4000e-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 27, 'total_tokens': 1384}),\n",
       " 208: AIMessage(content='Reducing the tax rates for returning R&D workers may lead to an increase in the number of inventors through both the retention of domestic inventors and the immigration of foreign inventors, although it may also reduce knowledge spillovers and productivity in the countries from which they are returning.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 301, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 55, 'total_token_count': 1412, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 55}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.013615043596787887, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-40197bbc-c0d4-43ba-bde4-826b1c03f53b-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 55, 'total_tokens': 1412}),\n",
       " 213: AIMessage(content='By adopting a progressive income taxation\\nsystem, countries can compress the after-tax\\nincome distribution, reduce inequality, and pro-\\nmote social mobility.6 Tax rates that are too high,\\nhowever, can dampen incentives to undertake\\nhigh-return, high-risk innovation activities. For\\nexample, in response to higher income taxes,\\ninnovators or entrepreneurs can reduce their\\nefforts, evade taxes, or migrate to lower-tax local-\\nities. Inventors prefer to locate in the same places\\nas other inventors in their specific domain.77\\nCountries can use inheritance or estate taxes\\nto reduce wealth inequality while financing\\nsocial protection programs. Progressive inher-\\nitance taxes can motivate charitable giving by\\nallowing tax deductions for donations by wealthy\\nindividuals and others-just as progressive\\nincome taxes often do. Charitable giving has\\ngained momentum in some middle-income\\ncountries, including the BRICs (Brazil, Russia,\\nIndia, China).\\nWhat is critical is finding the optimal\\ntax rate that will balance disincentive effects with\\nsteps to lower inequality. Governments can also\\noffset some of the disincentive effects of progres-\\nsive taxation by supporting an enabling innova-\\ntion environment, with universities, high-quality\\ninfrastructure, urban amenities, and direct incen-\\ntives for innovation (R&D subsidies).\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 125, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 159, 'end_index': 390, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 278, 'end_index': 417, 'uri': 'https://theprint.in/economy/it-will-take-india-75-yrs-to-reach-a-quarter-of-us-per-capita-income-levels-says-world-bank-report/2206107/', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 432, 'end_index': 660, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 675, 'end_index': 819, 'uri': 'https://theprint.in/economy/it-will-take-india-75-yrs-to-reach-a-quarter-of-us-per-capita-income-levels-says-world-bank-report/2206107/', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 706, 'end_index': 940, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 947, 'end_index': 1135, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 276, 'total_token_count': 1633, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 276}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.006877614104229471, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-c1677828-bd3a-4792-b78f-a4fa88095b83-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 276, 'total_tokens': 1633}),\n",
       " 215: AIMessage(content='Akcigit, Ufuk, Salomé Baslandze, and Stefanie Stantcheva.\\n2016. \"Taxation and the International Mobility of\\nInventors.\" American Economic Review 106 (10):\\n2930-81.\\nAkcigit, Ufuk, John Grigsby, Tom Nicholas, and Stefanie\\nStantcheva. 2022. \"Taxation and Innovation in the\\n20th Century.\" Quarterly Journal of Economics 137 (1):\\n329-85.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 326, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 121, 'total_token_count': 1478, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 121}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.00013518031717331942, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-ac2d7b9b-5c42-400c-a8b3-5c81a7306bb8-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 121, 'total_tokens': 1478}),\n",
       " 216: AIMessage(content='Diamond, Peter, and Emmanuel Saez. 2011. \"The Case\\nfor a Progressive Tax: From Basic Research to Policy\\nRecommendations.\" Journal of Economic Perspectives\\n25 (4): 165-90.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'start_index': 16, 'end_index': 155, 'uri': 'https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-115shrg32785/html/CHRG-115shrg32785.htm', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 51, 'total_token_count': 1408, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 51}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.000538741731468369, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-8e09de05-9458-437c-ada4-2e92bacfedf0-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 51, 'total_tokens': 1408}),\n",
       " 229: AIMessage(content='Governments can also provide tax incentives\\nto companies that collaborate with universi-\\nties, such as a generous tax deduction, as in Sri\\nLanka.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 34, 'total_token_count': 1391, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 34}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.01688213208142449, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-e165f06e-9d35-458c-b7c9-f491ba2e3ca6-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 34, 'total_tokens': 1391}),\n",
       " 230: AIMessage(content='And yet enforcement of tax codes often tends\\nto lump firms together by size. Even where tax\\ncodes do not create explicit provisions based on\\nfirm size, middle-income countries may be cre-\\nating a practical subsidy to SMEs through size-\\ndependent tax enforcement: governments with\\nweak tax collection capacity may concentrate\\nenforcement on larger firms.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 181, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 71, 'total_token_count': 1428, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 71}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.011488916168750172, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-706bf2fc-ea78-4c51-b1e4-a03d539c97ca-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 71, 'total_tokens': 1428}),\n",
       " 232: AIMessage(content='Figure 8.3 The number of countries creating\\nspecial enforcement units for large taxpayers\\nhas increased\\n\\nResearch has revealed that if firms were\\nto comply with size-dependent tax policies,\\nin 140 countries employment growth would\\ndrop by 25 percent. Conversely, removing\\nsize-dependent taxation would lead to TFP\\ngains of about 1 percent, on average, and up to\\n2.3 percent for more distorted economies.59 For\\nexample, in Mexico eliminating distortions cre-\\nated by size-dependent taxation policies\\nfavoring small firms could boost output by\\n9 percent.60 In Chile, China, and India, reduc-\\ntions in distortions helped these economies\\nclose the gap between actual and poten-\\ntial productivity by 10 percent. More\\nimportant, reforms of size-dependent policies\\nincrease the return to skills and encourages\\ntechnology adoption and productivity in the\\nlonger term.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'start_index': 105, 'end_index': 454, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 707, 'end_index': 854, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 193, 'total_token_count': 1550, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 193}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.003934222490676326, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-45009a57-ed43-4887-8bea-ade44a858600-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 193, 'total_tokens': 1550}),\n",
       " 238: AIMessage(content=\"Carbon pricing is an essential policy for mit-\\nigating emissions, while helping to raise public\\nrevenue in an efficient and less distortive way\\nthan the alternatives. It signals to markets the\\nsocial cost of emitting GHGs, creating financial\\nincentives to abate emissions, reduce fossil fuel\\nconsumption, and innovate low-carbon products\\nand processes. Some economists believe that car-\\nbon taxation is the most efficient instrument for\\nreducing emissions in a growth-friendly way. On\\nJanuary 16, 2019, 43 of the world's most promi-\\nnent economists, including 27 Nobel Laureates,\\nissued a statement published in the Wall Street\\nJournal (2019) arguing that a carbon tax in the\\n\", additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'start_index': 66, 'end_index': 385, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 391, 'end_index': 530, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 538, 'end_index': 673, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 158, 'total_token_count': 1515, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 158}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.004139545597607577, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-1724eeb3-978f-4f98-a2f6-36b99b02ce20-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 158, 'total_tokens': 1515}),\n",
       " 239: AIMessage(content='United States \"offers the most cost-effective\\nlever to reduce carbon emissions at the scale and\\nspeed that [are] necessary.” Others have proposed\\na strategic combination of temporary research\\nsubsidies and carbon taxes that could steer tech-\\nnological advancements toward more environ-\\nmentally sustainable solutions.\\nDirect carbon pricing instruments include car-\\nbon pricing signals sent through carbon taxes and\\nemissions trading systems (ETSs). According to\\nthe World Bank\\'s State and Trends of Carbon Pricing\\n2023 report, these schemes currently cover a rela-\\ntively limited portion of global carbon emissions,\\nof countries that have adopted direct carbon pric-\\ning schemes through ETSs or carbon taxes is lim-\\nited.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 235, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 369, 'end_index': 557, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 150, 'total_token_count': 1507, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 150}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.012881282170613607, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-1aa1ec38-9974-4a99-bcd2-78eeed281e70-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 150, 'total_tokens': 1507}),\n",
       " 240: AIMessage(content='through the EU ETS rose sharply from 2019 to\\n2021. Nevertheless, the carbon prices prevailing in\\nmost jurisdictions and their estimated global aver-\\nage remain quite modest.\\nBecause the overall carbon price signal is not\\nconfined to direct carbon pricing, the concept\\nof the total carbon price (TCP) has been intro-\\nduced a metric intended to assess the price signal\\nresulting from a combination of direct and indi-\\nrect carbon pricing instruments, including energy\\nexcise taxes and fuel subsidies.22 Illustrative\\nTCP calculations carried out using the best avail-\\nable global data sets relying on annual data for\\n142 countries covering the last 30 years find that\\nindirect carbon pricing instruments play a much\\nmore prominent role in sending price signals on\\ncarbon emissions. Among indirect carbon pricing\\ninstruments, an analysis of illustrative TCP calcu-\\nlations finds that energy taxes, in particular, send\\nthe strongest price signal. These taxes cover a sig-\\nnificant share of global emissions and send much\\nhigher carbon price signals than their direct coun-\\nterparts. By contrast, energy subsidies send strong\\nsignals in the opposite direction, undermining\\nthe positive signals sent from direct and indirect\\ninstruments, as illustrated in figure 8.6.100\\nRemoving inefficient fossil fuel subsidies is an\\nintegral part of the policy mix to reduce carbon\\nemissions. This market distortion discourages\\nthe adoption of clean energy because regulated\\nprices or taxes favor fossil fuels. After a notice-\\nable dip in 2020 stemming from the COVID-19\\npandemic, global fossil fuel subsidies for 2022\\ndoubled from the previous year to an all-time\\nhigh of US$1 trillion, as indicated by preliminary\\nestimates.101 According to a global tracking effort,\\nat least 60 countries increased (or even reintro-\\nduced) general fuel price subsidies (as opposed to\\ntargeted compensation), and at least 98 countries\\nannounced energy-related measures, including\\nsubsidies for fuel, electricity, transport, and elec-\\ntric vehicles, as well as price controls for fuel.102\\nFigure 8.6 Indirect carbon pricing such as energy taxes is the strongest price signal\\nNote: The figure presents illustrative calculations for the global aggregate total carbon price using the best available global\\ndata. The figure covers 142 countries. ETSs = emissions trading systems; tCO₂ = metric tons of carbon dioxide; VAT = value\\nadded tax.\\nETSS\\nCarbon taxes\\nEnergy taxes\\nEnergy subsidies VAT deviations\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 146, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 153, 'end_index': 309, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 570, 'end_index': 858, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 1078, 'end_index': 1499, 'title': 'Your prompt', 'uri': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 1512, 'end_index': 1793, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 1806, 'end_index': 1984, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 540, 'total_token_count': 1897, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 540}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.006964511783034713, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-17639906-0ed6-4b74-9698-f63741b4a846-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 540, 'total_tokens': 1897}),\n",
       " 241: AIMessage(content='Well-designed taxes can be a starting point\\nto incentivize citizens and businesses to make\\ncleaner choices, thereby reducing climate damage\\nand air pollution. Taxes also raise much-needed\\nrevenue, which can be used to fund vital govern-\\nment services and support vulnerable groups in\\nadjusting to higher energy prices, including by\\nintroducing or strengthening social safety nets.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 230, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 242, 'end_index': 376, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 76, 'total_token_count': 1433, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 76}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -4.632543392577454e-05, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-acf44887-5951-4e90-b239-b789e784ccfc-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 76, 'total_tokens': 1433}),\n",
       " 242: AIMessage(content='PPA tariff estimates based on\\nauctions (US$0.01 per kWh)\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 20, 'total_token_count': 1377, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 20}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.00034151163417845966, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-c9290c0a-792a-4995-8d29-a699e7d49bd7-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 20, 'total_tokens': 1377}),\n",
       " 245: AIMessage(content='42. The deduction is 300 percent. The company reduces\\ntaxable income by three times the amount of R&D\\nexpenditure (Mendes 2015).\\n99. Agnolucci et al. (2023); Agnolucci, Gencer, and Heine\\n(2024). TCP components labeled as \"energy taxes\" and\\n\"energy subsidies\" are based on \"net\" computed val-\\nues, as proxies for actual values of energy taxes and\\nsubsidies, due to data limitations. Energy taxes and\\nsubsidies are estimated based on the \"price gap\"\\nbetween retail prices and supply costs for a particular\\nenergy carrier, used in a specific sector in a jurisdiction\\nin a given year. The net energy taxes and subsidies are\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 126, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 129, 'end_index': 289, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 297, 'end_index': 615, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 167, 'total_token_count': 1524, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 167}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.0024883581135801214, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-8ad88dc2-3df6-4a88-854c-8a6634691934-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 167, 'total_tokens': 1524}),\n",
       " 246: AIMessage(content='Agnolucci, Paolo, Carolyn Fischer, Dirk Heine, Mariza\\nMontes de Oca Leon, Joseph Dixon Callisto Pryor,\\nKathleen Patroni, and Stéphane Hallegatte. 2023.\\n\"Measuring Total Carbon Pricing.\" Policy Research\\nWorking Paper 10486, World Bank, Washington, DC.\\nAgnolucci, Paolo, Defne Gencer, and Dirk Heine. 2024.\\n\"Total Carbon Pricing for Energy Consumption: The\\nImportance of Energy Taxes and Subsidies.\" ESMAP\\nTechnical Report, Energy Subsidy Reform in Action\\nSeries, World Bank, Washington, DC.\\nBachas, Pierre, Roberto N. Fattal Jaef, and Anders\\nJensen. 2019. \"Size-Dependent Tax Enforcement\\nand Compliance: Global Evidence and Aggregate\\nImplications.\" Journal of Development Economics 140\\n(September): 203-22.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 480, 'title': 'Your prompt', 'start_index': 0, 'uri': '', 'license_': ''}, {'start_index': 468, 'end_index': 667, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 198, 'total_token_count': 1555, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 198}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.00014498255996391027, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-d68748a3-7f19-4c88-8079-f05fb62b5553-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 198, 'total_tokens': 1555}),\n",
       " 250: AIMessage(content='Wall Street Journal. 2019. \"Economists\\' Statement on\\nCarbon Dividends: Bipartisan Agreement on How to\\nCombat Climate Change.\" Opinion (blog), January\\n16, 2019. https://www.wsj.com/articles/economists\\n-statement-on-carbon-dividends-11547682910.\\nWorld Bank. 2023b. State and Trends of Carbon Pricing\\n2023. Washington, DC: World Bank.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 156, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 112, 'total_token_count': 1469, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}, {'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 112}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.001054159432117428, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-7da6992b-07c5-474b-8d63-df7c788c4241-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 112, 'total_tokens': 1469}),\n",
       " 258: AIMessage(content='introducing a “development tax” whether or not countries\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 11, 'total_token_count': 1368, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 11}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.127961895682595, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-a38026a5-7b2c-4773-86cf-d2528e45fed4-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 11, 'total_tokens': 1368}),\n",
       " 267: AIMessage(content='Sectoral policies such as government feed-in tariff programs50 were\\nparticularly significant in creating a market for\\nrenewable energy, first in Germany in the 1990s,\\nfollowed by Italy, Spain, the United States, China,\\nand India by the 2010s. Notably, as technologies\\nhave matured, feed-in tariffs have been replaced\\nby more cost-efficient procurement methods,\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 359, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 88, 'total_token_count': 1445, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 88}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.007466523484750228, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-c5c5d734-af00-423b-9008-98f92edeb0ee-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 88, 'total_tokens': 1445}),\n",
       " 270: AIMessage(content='50. A feed-in tariff is a policy tool that encourages the use\\nof renewable energy technologies by guaranteeing\\ncustomers a set price for the electricity they generate.\\n', additional_kwargs={}, response_metadata={'is_blocked': False, 'safety_ratings': [], 'citation_metadata': {'citations': [{'end_index': 163, 'uri': 'https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464820786', 'start_index': 0, 'title': '', 'license_': ''}]}, 'usage_metadata': {'prompt_token_count': 1357, 'candidates_token_count': 35, 'total_token_count': 1392, 'prompt_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 67}, {'modality': 5, 'token_count': 1290}], 'candidates_tokens_details': [{'modality': 1, 'token_count': 35}], 'cached_content_token_count': 0, 'cache_tokens_details': []}, 'finish_reason': 'STOP', 'avg_logprobs': -0.00020511419113193239, 'logprobs_result': {'top_candidates': [], 'chosen_candidates': []}}, id='run-763688dd-4f29-467e-8a41-32ac50ce4d74-0', usage_metadata={'input_tokens': 1357, 'output_tokens': 35, 'total_tokens': 1392})}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 12,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "valid = {i: f for i, f in full_doc_extract.items() if f.content.strip() != '<NONE>'}\n",
    "valid"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 13,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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     "metadata": {},
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   "source": [
    "len(valid)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 14,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "results = [reduce_results.Result('file', p, m.content) for p, m in valid.items()]"
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  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 15,
   "metadata": {},
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    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[Result(filename='file', page_number=13, text='201 8.3 The number of countries creating special enforcement units for large taxpayers has increased\\n209 8.6 Indirect carbon pricing such as energy taxes is the strongest price signal\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=24, text='Interventions that target errant incumbents to destroy harmful arrangements include adopting competition laws and ensuring the effectiveness of competition authorities, as well as using fiscal policy to make elites contestable.\\nTo decouple carbon emissions from a growing economy, middle-income countries can effectively price carbon emissions and scale up deployment of low-carbon energy by respecting the merit order-the sequence followed by grid operators selling power to the market.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=31, text='TCP total carbon price\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=39, text='Firms received tax credits for royalty payments, and family-owned conglomerates, or chaebols, took the lead in copying technologies from abroad-primarily Japan.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=40, text='Note: Panel b shows the adoption subsidy rate alongside the innovation (R&D) subsidy rate, calculated using the tax credit\\nrate and the corporate tax rate. For example, a 30 percent subsidy rate indicates that firms can receive a reimbursement\\nequivalent to 30 percent of their expenditures on adoption fees or R&D. R&D = research and development.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=41, text='Notably, it imposed\\na 10 percent marginal tax rate on payments for\\ninternational intellectual property. These tax rev-\\nenues were used to subsidize innovation in tar-\\ngeted sectors, including biotechnology, aviation,\\nhealth, and agriculture.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=49, text='domestic firms in sectors facing export tariff reduc-\\ntions began to invest more in computing tech-\\nnology and in technology transfers and patents.20\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=50, text='Even where tax codes do not create explicit pro-\\nvisions based on firm size, middle-income coun-\\ntries may be creating a practical subsidy to SMEs\\nthrough size-dependent tax enforcement—that\\nis, governments with weak tax collection capacity\\nmay concentrate enforcement on larger firms.28\\nIn Mexico, eliminating distortions created by\\nsize-dependent taxation policies favoring small\\nfirms could boost output by 9 percent.29 In Chile,\\nChina, and India, reductions in distortions helped\\nthese economies close the gap between actual and\\npotential productivity by 10 percent.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=53, text='Digital data on payments, receipts, taxes, and\\nloan repayments all make it possible to assess\\nfinancial credibility.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=55, text='Governments could also offer firms tax incentives\\nfor collaborating with universities.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=56, text='Estimates suggest that middle-income\\ncountries account for 93 percent of\\nexplicit fossil fuel subsidies.4º A promising\\napproach is to consider the concept of\\ntotal carbon price (TCP) to assess the\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=57, text='price signal from a combination of direct\\nand indirect carbon pricing instruments,\\nincluding energy excise taxes and fuel\\nsubsidies.50\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=59, text='50. Agnolucci, Gencer, and Heine (2024). TCP components\\nlabeled \"energy taxes\" and \"energy subsidies\" are\\nbased on \"net\" computed values (as proxies for the\\nactual values of energy taxes and subsidies) due to\\ndata limitations. Energy taxes and subsidies are esti-\\nmated based on the \"price gap\" between retail prices\\nand supply costs for a particular energy carrier used in\\na specific sector in a jurisdiction in a given year. The net\\nenergy taxes and subsidies are then aggregated across\\nsectors, fuels, and countries to yield a global value.\\nMore details on this methodology are provided in\\nAgnolucci, Gencer, and Heine (2024).\\n\\nAgnolucci, Paolo, Defne Gencer, and Dirk Heine. 2024.\\n\"Total Carbon Pricing for Energy Consumption: The\\nImportance of Energy Taxes and Subsidies.\" ESMAP\\nTechnical Report, Energy Subsidy Reform in Action\\nSeries, World Bank, Washington, DC.\\n\\nAkcigit, Ufuk, Salomé Baslandze, and Stefanie Stantcheva.\\n2016. \"Taxation and the International Mobility of\\nInventors.\" American Economic Review 106 (10): 2930-81.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=60, text='Bachas, Pierre, Roberto N. Fattal Jaef, and Anders\\nJensen. 2019. \"Size-Dependent Tax Enforcement\\nand Compliance: Global Evidence and Aggregate\\nImplications.\" Journal of Development Economics 140\\n(September): 203-22.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=69, text=\"Reclassifying levels based on fiscal capacity. Ravallion (2009) argues that levels of devel-\\nopment should be assessed based on countries' internal capacities for redistribution\\n(through taxes) in favor of their poorest citizens. Similarly, Ceriani and Verme (2014)\\npropose a measure of a country's capacity to reduce its own poverty levels and show\\nhow these tools can be used to guide budget or aid allocations.\\n\"),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=72, text='it offered tax incentives;\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=77, text='Ravallion, Martin. 2009. \"Do Poorer Countries Have Less\\nCapacity for Redistribution?\" Policy Research Working\\nPaper 5046, World Bank, Washington, DC.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=88, text='Korea subsidized the adoption of foreign technologies and innovation through tax credits. Specifically, firms received tax credits for royalty payments or research and development (R&D) expenditures.\\nMalaysia offered a spectrum of tax incentives to attract FDI through the Promotion of Investment Act in 1986.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=91, text='Note: Panel b shows the adoption subsidy rate alongside the innovation (R&D) subsidy rate, calculated using the tax credit\\nrate and the corporate tax rate. For example, a 30 percent subsidy rate indicates that firms can receive a reimbursement\\nequivalent to 30 percent of their expenditures on adoption fees or R&D. R&D = research and development.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=93, text='lower tax burdens\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=104, text='Note: Measuring trade policies is fraught with challenges, and the GTA database may overrepresent countries that\\nissue a relatively high quantity of legislative documents or those with greater regulatory transparency. The bars indicate\\nglobal trade policies introduced in the corresponding year. Helpful trade policies include interventions that liberalize on a\\nnondiscriminatory basis or improve the transparency of a relevant policy. Harmful trade policies include interventions that\\ndiscriminate against foreign commercial interests. \"8541\" and \"8542\" refer to the four-digit Harmonized System codes for\\nsemiconductors. See Harmonized System (dashboard), World Customs Organization, Brussels, https://www.wcotradetools\\n.org/en/harmonized-system.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=106, text='Interest expense (% of general government revenues)\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=127, text='By using size to screen which firms should be pro-\\ntected and which firms should be penalized, pol-\\nicy makers end up taxing firms that create value\\n(box 4.2).\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=128, text='In some countries, smaller firms below a specific size are exempt from regulations or tax-\\nation. In other countries, once the firm exceeds a specified size threshold, it faces higher\\ntaxes and more regulations.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=129, text=\"Mexico. Mexico's income tax law created REPECO (Régimen de Pequeños\\nContribuyentes), a special provision for small businesses based on their level of sales. For\\nordinary firms whose sales exceed the threshold, the tax on capital income amounts to\\n38 percent (28 percent for the government and 10 percent for profit-sharing with employ-\\nees). Firms with annual sales below US$163,000 (Mex$2 million) do not have to pay the\\ncapital tax, but instead pay a 2 percent sales tax, with 7.5 percent of the 2 percent sales\\ntax directed to the profit-sharing scheme. Once the sales of a REPECO firm exceed the\\nthreshold, it cannot become a REPECO firm again.a\\n\"),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=130, text='France. Labor laws in France apply special provisions to firms with more than 10, 11,\\n20, or 50 employees. In particular, as a firm reaches 50 employees, a committee for\\nhygiene, safety, and work conditions must be formed and trained; a works council must\\nbe formed and meet at least every other month; and a higher payroll tax rate, which goes\\nfrom 0.9 percent to 1.5 percent, subsidizes worker training.\\nRepublic of Korea. When a firm is classified as a small or medium enterprise (SME), it\\ncan receive about 160 benefits from the SME support policy. Benefits include differential\\ncorporate tax rates, tax relief benefits, and government-guaranteed loans for SMEs.h\\nAnd,\\nin France, firms with more than 50 workers pay\\na higher payroll tax rate and must comply with\\nadditional regulations. 10 Such programs create\\nTurnover taxes that tax intermediate and\\ncapital goods and corporate taxes, even when\\nset at uniform rates, are also examples of size-\\ndependent policies in the way in which they are\\nenforced. Larger firms are more likely to face tax\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=132, text='More broadly, these rules of thumb impose a\\nhefty tax on productive firms, a practice known\\nas \"taxing the good\" (figure 4.11). By discouraging\\nthe expansion and growth of firms, these policies\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=137, text='Bachas, Pierre, Roberto N. Fattal Jaef, and Anders\\nJensen. 2019. \"Size-Dependent Tax Enforcement\\nand Compliance: Global Evidence and Aggregate\\nImplications.\" Journal of Development Economics 140\\n(September): 203-22.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=147, text=\"Teachers then pay union fees from their salaries,\\nand unions contribute a portion of this revenue\\nto politicians' campaigns.\\n\"),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=162, text='Akcigit, Ufuk, John Grigsby, Tom Nicholas, and Stefanie\\nStantcheva. 2022. \"Taxation and Innovation in the\\nTwentieth Century.\" Quarterly Journal of Economics\\n137 (1): 329-85.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=170, text='The IRA could have large impacts on power sector investments and electricity prices, lowering retail electricity rates and resulting in negative prices in some wholesale markets.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=175, text='higher car-\\nbon pricing (as measured using the net effective\\ncarbon rate of the Organisation for Economic\\nCo-operation and Development, OECD)\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=177, text='Although 80 percent of the global population lives in a country that imports fossil fuel, fossil fuel revenues are highly concentrated.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=179, text=\"In addition, middle-income\\ncountries generally provide highly polluting\\nindustries with higher corporate tax incentives.\\nSuch incentives are particularly high in the Middle\\nEast and North Africa, as measured by the World\\nBank's Global Corporate Income Tax Incentives\\nDatabase.\\n\"),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=180, text='as well as the need for carbon pricing to correct\\nfor the negative externality of carbon emissions.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=187, text='42. Black et al. (2023). It is much more difficult to define the\\ntax benchmark. As a result, individual country data\\nshould not be compared or aggregated, and caution\\nshould be applied when comparing producer subsidies\\nacross countries.\\nAghion, Philippe, Antoine Dechezleprêtre, David Hémous,\\nRalf Martin, and John Van Reenen. 2016. \"Carbon Taxes,\\nPath Dependency, and Directed Technical Change:\\nEvidence from the Auto Industry.\" Journal of Political\\nEconomy 124 (1): 1-51.\\nAgnolucci, Paolo, Carolyn Fischer, Dirk Heine, Mariza\\nMontes de Oca Leon, Joseph Pryor, Kathleen Patroni,\\nand Stéphane Hallegatte. 2023. \"Measuring Total\\nCarbon Pricing.\" World Bank Research Observer. https://\\ndoi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkad009.\\nAgnolucci, Paolo, Defne Gencer, and Dirk Heine. 2024.\\n\"Total Carbon Pricing for Energy Consumption: The\\nImportance of Energy Taxes and Subsidies. Energy\\nSubsidy Reform in Action Series.\" ESMAP Technical\\nReport. Washington, DC: World Bank.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=188, text='OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and\\nDevelopment). 2023. \"Effective Carbon Rates 2023:\\nPricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions through Taxes and\\nEmissions Trading.\" OECD Series on Carbon Pricing and\\nEnergy Taxation. OECD, Paris.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=190, text='Instituting progressive tax policies to discipline incumbent elites while still incentivizing innovation will be needed as well.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=199, text='These typically involve taxes, public debt, public procurement conditions, state support, and exemptions to legal frameworks.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=202, text='Governments can use various options that range from free state-provided care to offering providers and parents financial subsidies, tax incentives, or other forms of support.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=205, text='However, mixed results\\nhave emerged from promoting specific industries\\nor sectors through tax breaks, direct subsidies,\\nimport tariff exemptions, cheap credit, dedicated\\ninfrastructure, or the bundling of all of these in\\nexport zones.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=206, text=\"For example, in Pakistan increases in upstream markets' tariff\\nduties reduced the productivity of firms in the\\ndownstream markets.\\n\"),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=208, text='Reducing the tax rates for returning R&D workers may lead to an increase in the number of inventors through both the retention of domestic inventors and the immigration of foreign inventors, although it may also reduce knowledge spillovers and productivity in the countries from which they are returning.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=213, text='By adopting a progressive income taxation\\nsystem, countries can compress the after-tax\\nincome distribution, reduce inequality, and pro-\\nmote social mobility.6 Tax rates that are too high,\\nhowever, can dampen incentives to undertake\\nhigh-return, high-risk innovation activities. For\\nexample, in response to higher income taxes,\\ninnovators or entrepreneurs can reduce their\\nefforts, evade taxes, or migrate to lower-tax local-\\nities. Inventors prefer to locate in the same places\\nas other inventors in their specific domain.77\\nCountries can use inheritance or estate taxes\\nto reduce wealth inequality while financing\\nsocial protection programs. Progressive inher-\\nitance taxes can motivate charitable giving by\\nallowing tax deductions for donations by wealthy\\nindividuals and others-just as progressive\\nincome taxes often do. Charitable giving has\\ngained momentum in some middle-income\\ncountries, including the BRICs (Brazil, Russia,\\nIndia, China).\\nWhat is critical is finding the optimal\\ntax rate that will balance disincentive effects with\\nsteps to lower inequality. Governments can also\\noffset some of the disincentive effects of progres-\\nsive taxation by supporting an enabling innova-\\ntion environment, with universities, high-quality\\ninfrastructure, urban amenities, and direct incen-\\ntives for innovation (R&D subsidies).\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=215, text='Akcigit, Ufuk, Salomé Baslandze, and Stefanie Stantcheva.\\n2016. \"Taxation and the International Mobility of\\nInventors.\" American Economic Review 106 (10):\\n2930-81.\\nAkcigit, Ufuk, John Grigsby, Tom Nicholas, and Stefanie\\nStantcheva. 2022. \"Taxation and Innovation in the\\n20th Century.\" Quarterly Journal of Economics 137 (1):\\n329-85.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=216, text='Diamond, Peter, and Emmanuel Saez. 2011. \"The Case\\nfor a Progressive Tax: From Basic Research to Policy\\nRecommendations.\" Journal of Economic Perspectives\\n25 (4): 165-90.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=229, text='Governments can also provide tax incentives\\nto companies that collaborate with universi-\\nties, such as a generous tax deduction, as in Sri\\nLanka.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=230, text='And yet enforcement of tax codes often tends\\nto lump firms together by size. Even where tax\\ncodes do not create explicit provisions based on\\nfirm size, middle-income countries may be cre-\\nating a practical subsidy to SMEs through size-\\ndependent tax enforcement: governments with\\nweak tax collection capacity may concentrate\\nenforcement on larger firms.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=232, text='Figure 8.3 The number of countries creating\\nspecial enforcement units for large taxpayers\\nhas increased\\n\\nResearch has revealed that if firms were\\nto comply with size-dependent tax policies,\\nin 140 countries employment growth would\\ndrop by 25 percent. Conversely, removing\\nsize-dependent taxation would lead to TFP\\ngains of about 1 percent, on average, and up to\\n2.3 percent for more distorted economies.59 For\\nexample, in Mexico eliminating distortions cre-\\nated by size-dependent taxation policies\\nfavoring small firms could boost output by\\n9 percent.60 In Chile, China, and India, reduc-\\ntions in distortions helped these economies\\nclose the gap between actual and poten-\\ntial productivity by 10 percent. More\\nimportant, reforms of size-dependent policies\\nincrease the return to skills and encourages\\ntechnology adoption and productivity in the\\nlonger term.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=238, text=\"Carbon pricing is an essential policy for mit-\\nigating emissions, while helping to raise public\\nrevenue in an efficient and less distortive way\\nthan the alternatives. It signals to markets the\\nsocial cost of emitting GHGs, creating financial\\nincentives to abate emissions, reduce fossil fuel\\nconsumption, and innovate low-carbon products\\nand processes. Some economists believe that car-\\nbon taxation is the most efficient instrument for\\nreducing emissions in a growth-friendly way. On\\nJanuary 16, 2019, 43 of the world's most promi-\\nnent economists, including 27 Nobel Laureates,\\nissued a statement published in the Wall Street\\nJournal (2019) arguing that a carbon tax in the\\n\"),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=239, text='United States \"offers the most cost-effective\\nlever to reduce carbon emissions at the scale and\\nspeed that [are] necessary.” Others have proposed\\na strategic combination of temporary research\\nsubsidies and carbon taxes that could steer tech-\\nnological advancements toward more environ-\\nmentally sustainable solutions.\\nDirect carbon pricing instruments include car-\\nbon pricing signals sent through carbon taxes and\\nemissions trading systems (ETSs). According to\\nthe World Bank\\'s State and Trends of Carbon Pricing\\n2023 report, these schemes currently cover a rela-\\ntively limited portion of global carbon emissions,\\nof countries that have adopted direct carbon pric-\\ning schemes through ETSs or carbon taxes is lim-\\nited.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=240, text='through the EU ETS rose sharply from 2019 to\\n2021. Nevertheless, the carbon prices prevailing in\\nmost jurisdictions and their estimated global aver-\\nage remain quite modest.\\nBecause the overall carbon price signal is not\\nconfined to direct carbon pricing, the concept\\nof the total carbon price (TCP) has been intro-\\nduced a metric intended to assess the price signal\\nresulting from a combination of direct and indi-\\nrect carbon pricing instruments, including energy\\nexcise taxes and fuel subsidies.22 Illustrative\\nTCP calculations carried out using the best avail-\\nable global data sets relying on annual data for\\n142 countries covering the last 30 years find that\\nindirect carbon pricing instruments play a much\\nmore prominent role in sending price signals on\\ncarbon emissions. Among indirect carbon pricing\\ninstruments, an analysis of illustrative TCP calcu-\\nlations finds that energy taxes, in particular, send\\nthe strongest price signal. These taxes cover a sig-\\nnificant share of global emissions and send much\\nhigher carbon price signals than their direct coun-\\nterparts. By contrast, energy subsidies send strong\\nsignals in the opposite direction, undermining\\nthe positive signals sent from direct and indirect\\ninstruments, as illustrated in figure 8.6.100\\nRemoving inefficient fossil fuel subsidies is an\\nintegral part of the policy mix to reduce carbon\\nemissions. This market distortion discourages\\nthe adoption of clean energy because regulated\\nprices or taxes favor fossil fuels. After a notice-\\nable dip in 2020 stemming from the COVID-19\\npandemic, global fossil fuel subsidies for 2022\\ndoubled from the previous year to an all-time\\nhigh of US$1 trillion, as indicated by preliminary\\nestimates.101 According to a global tracking effort,\\nat least 60 countries increased (or even reintro-\\nduced) general fuel price subsidies (as opposed to\\ntargeted compensation), and at least 98 countries\\nannounced energy-related measures, including\\nsubsidies for fuel, electricity, transport, and elec-\\ntric vehicles, as well as price controls for fuel.102\\nFigure 8.6 Indirect carbon pricing such as energy taxes is the strongest price signal\\nNote: The figure presents illustrative calculations for the global aggregate total carbon price using the best available global\\ndata. The figure covers 142 countries. ETSs = emissions trading systems; tCO₂ = metric tons of carbon dioxide; VAT = value\\nadded tax.\\nETSS\\nCarbon taxes\\nEnergy taxes\\nEnergy subsidies VAT deviations\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=241, text='Well-designed taxes can be a starting point\\nto incentivize citizens and businesses to make\\ncleaner choices, thereby reducing climate damage\\nand air pollution. Taxes also raise much-needed\\nrevenue, which can be used to fund vital govern-\\nment services and support vulnerable groups in\\nadjusting to higher energy prices, including by\\nintroducing or strengthening social safety nets.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=242, text='PPA tariff estimates based on\\nauctions (US$0.01 per kWh)\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=245, text='42. The deduction is 300 percent. The company reduces\\ntaxable income by three times the amount of R&D\\nexpenditure (Mendes 2015).\\n99. Agnolucci et al. (2023); Agnolucci, Gencer, and Heine\\n(2024). TCP components labeled as \"energy taxes\" and\\n\"energy subsidies\" are based on \"net\" computed val-\\nues, as proxies for actual values of energy taxes and\\nsubsidies, due to data limitations. Energy taxes and\\nsubsidies are estimated based on the \"price gap\"\\nbetween retail prices and supply costs for a particular\\nenergy carrier, used in a specific sector in a jurisdiction\\nin a given year. The net energy taxes and subsidies are\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=246, text='Agnolucci, Paolo, Carolyn Fischer, Dirk Heine, Mariza\\nMontes de Oca Leon, Joseph Dixon Callisto Pryor,\\nKathleen Patroni, and Stéphane Hallegatte. 2023.\\n\"Measuring Total Carbon Pricing.\" Policy Research\\nWorking Paper 10486, World Bank, Washington, DC.\\nAgnolucci, Paolo, Defne Gencer, and Dirk Heine. 2024.\\n\"Total Carbon Pricing for Energy Consumption: The\\nImportance of Energy Taxes and Subsidies.\" ESMAP\\nTechnical Report, Energy Subsidy Reform in Action\\nSeries, World Bank, Washington, DC.\\nBachas, Pierre, Roberto N. Fattal Jaef, and Anders\\nJensen. 2019. \"Size-Dependent Tax Enforcement\\nand Compliance: Global Evidence and Aggregate\\nImplications.\" Journal of Development Economics 140\\n(September): 203-22.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=250, text='Wall Street Journal. 2019. \"Economists\\' Statement on\\nCarbon Dividends: Bipartisan Agreement on How to\\nCombat Climate Change.\" Opinion (blog), January\\n16, 2019. https://www.wsj.com/articles/economists\\n-statement-on-carbon-dividends-11547682910.\\nWorld Bank. 2023b. State and Trends of Carbon Pricing\\n2023. Washington, DC: World Bank.\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=258, text='introducing a “development tax” whether or not countries\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=267, text='Sectoral policies such as government feed-in tariff programs50 were\\nparticularly significant in creating a market for\\nrenewable energy, first in Germany in the 1990s,\\nfollowed by Italy, Spain, the United States, China,\\nand India by the 2010s. Notably, as technologies\\nhave matured, feed-in tariffs have been replaced\\nby more cost-efficient procurement methods,\\n'),\n",
       " Result(filename='file', page_number=270, text='50. A feed-in tariff is a policy tool that encourages the use\\nof renewable energy technologies by guaranteeing\\ncustomers a set price for the electricity they generate.\\n')]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 15,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "results"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 20,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "summary = await reduce_results.summarize_large_result_set(results, llm)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 21,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Here's a comprehensive summary consolidating the insights from all three sets of results:\n",
      "\n",
      "**1. Main Themes and Patterns Across All Results:**\n",
      "\n",
      "*   **Taxation and Subsidies as Economic Levers:** Taxation (including carbon pricing) and subsidies (including tax incentives) are consistently presented as key policy tools used to influence economic behavior, promote innovation, attract investment, and address environmental concerns.\n",
      "*   **Firm Size and Tax Distortions:** The impact of tax policies that vary based on firm size is a recurring theme. These policies, often intended to support SMEs, can inadvertently create disincentives for growth, reduce overall productivity, and distort the economy.\n",
      "*   **Innovation and Taxation:** The relationship between taxation and innovation is explored extensively. High tax rates can dampen innovation incentives, but strategic tax incentives (R&D credits, collaboration incentives) and a supportive innovation ecosystem (universities, infrastructure) can offset these effects.\n",
      "*   **Carbon Pricing and Energy Policy:** Carbon pricing, encompassing both direct (carbon taxes, emissions trading systems) and indirect (energy taxes, removal of fossil fuel subsidies) mechanisms, is consistently highlighted as a crucial tool for mitigating emissions and incentivizing low-carbon innovation. The concept of Total Carbon Price (TCP) is introduced as a comprehensive metric.\n",
      "*   **Renewable Energy Policy Evolution:** The evolution of renewable energy policies, specifically the shift from feed-in tariffs to more cost-efficient procurement methods, is discussed.\n",
      "\n",
      "**2. Significant Outliers or Contradictions:**\n",
      "\n",
      "*   **Fuel Subsidies as Part of Carbon Pricing:** The inclusion of fuel subsidies as part of carbon pricing instruments presents a contradiction, as they generally undermine carbon reduction efforts.\n",
      "*   **Negative Electricity Prices due to IRA:** The potential for negative electricity prices due to the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) stands out as a specific, potentially unintended consequence of a subsidy program.\n",
      "*   **Tension Between Progressive Taxation and Innovation:** There's an inherent tension between using progressive taxation to reduce inequality and the risk that high tax rates will discourage innovation.\n",
      "*   **Data Bias in Trade Policy Measurement:** The potential for overrepresentation of countries with greater regulatory transparency in trade policy databases highlights a potential bias in available data.\n",
      "*   **Isolated Data Points:** A few isolated data points, such as the PPA tariff estimate and the mention of a \"development tax,\" lack sufficient context to be fully integrated into the broader themes.\n",
      "\n",
      "**3. Consolidated Findings:**\n",
      "\n",
      "*   **Size-Dependent Tax Policies: A Double-Edged Sword:** While intended to support SMEs, these policies often create distortions, penalize growth, and reduce overall productivity. Removing these distortions could lead to significant economic gains.\n",
      "*   **Optimizing Tax Rates for Innovation: A Balancing Act:** Governments need to find a balance between using progressive taxation to address inequality and ensuring that tax rates do not stifle innovation. Complementary policies that support innovation (R&D subsidies, infrastructure, collaboration incentives) are crucial.\n",
      "*   **Carbon Pricing: A Multifaceted Solution:** Carbon pricing is viewed as an efficient instrument for reducing emissions, incentivizing low-carbon innovation, and potentially raising public revenue. A holistic approach, considering both direct and indirect instruments (TCP), is necessary.\n",
      "*   **Fossil Fuel Subsidies: A Major Obstacle:** Fossil fuel subsidies are identified as a major impediment to effective carbon pricing and climate action. Their recent increase significantly undermines global efforts to reduce emissions.\n",
      "*   **Renewable Energy Policy: Adapting to Maturity:** Renewable energy policies are evolving, with a shift from feed-in tariffs to more cost-efficient procurement methods as technologies mature.\n",
      "*   **Taxes as Incentives:** Well-designed taxes can incentivize cleaner choices, reduce pollution, and generate revenue for government services and social safety nets.\n",
      "*   **Digitalization and Tax Assessment:** Digital data can improve the assessment of financial credibility and tax compliance.\n",
      "\n",
      "**4. Most Important Insights:**\n",
      "\n",
      "1.  **Re-evaluate Size-Dependent Tax Policies:** Policies that create tax advantages or disadvantages based on firm size should be carefully evaluated for their impact on overall economic productivity and growth.  Consider the potential for unintended consequences and distortions.\n",
      "2.  **Optimize Tax Rates to Foster Innovation:** Governments need to find a balance between using progressive taxation to address inequality and ensuring that tax rates do not stifle innovation. Complementary policies that support innovation are crucial.\n",
      "3.  **Embrace Comprehensive Carbon Pricing:** Carbon pricing mechanisms are essential for addressing climate change and can be implemented in a way that promotes economic growth. A holistic approach, considering both direct and indirect instruments (TCP), is necessary for accurate assessment and effective policy design.\n",
      "4.  **Eliminate or Reform Fossil Fuel Subsidies:** Fossil fuel subsidies are a major impediment to effective carbon pricing and climate action. Their removal or reform is crucial for achieving climate goals.\n",
      "5.  **Adapt Renewable Energy Policies to Technological Maturity:** As renewable energy technologies mature, policies should evolve from feed-in tariffs to more cost-efficient procurement methods.\n",
      "6.  **Leverage Taxes for Positive Change:** Taxes can be a powerful tool for incentivizing cleaner choices, reducing pollution, and generating revenue for climate action and social support.\n",
      "7.  **Utilize Digital Data for Improved Tax Assessment:** Digital data can improve the assessment of financial credibility and tax compliance, leading to more effective tax enforcement.\n",
      "\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(summary)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  }
 ],
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