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connects two nouns into a noun first noun = specific second noun = general
あの／えと
um...
はい／ええ／うん
yes (common/relaxed/informal)
ごぜん～じ
morning/am
ごご～じ
afternoon/pm
Chapter 2
これ／この noun（は～）
this, close to speaker
それ／その noun（は～）
that, close to listener
あれ／あの noun（は～）
that, away from both
どれ／どの noun（が～）
which one/noun
ここ
here
そこ
there
あぞこ
over there
どこ
where
だれ／だれの noun
whose
AはＸです。
A is X.
ＢもＸです。
B is X, too.
ＸはＹじゃないです。
X is not Y. (colloquial)
ＸはＹじゃありません。
X is not Y. (conservative speech style)
ＸはＹではありません。
X is not Y. (formal, used in writing)
～ね。
...right?
～よ。
I tell you/let me assure you
お
politeness marker
（～を）ください
Please give me X. (request for items)
（～を）おねがいします
More upscale kudasai, used in restaurants
（～を）どうぞ
Offer is made to item X
Chapter 3
ru-verbs usually (-i/eる) and always end with ru
u-verbs usually (-a/u/oる) and always end with u
ru-verbs
u-verbs
irregular（する）
irregular（くる）
dictionary
ーる
ーう
する
くる
present +
ーます
ーimasu
します
きます
present -
ーません
ーimasen
しません
きません
Word order: (noun+particle sequences) (adverb) noun [を/で/に/へ] verb tense
を
direct objects
place で noun
where event takes place
に
goal of movement, time (omitted when using relative time, intervals, and using when)
へ
goal of movement
～ませんか。
extend an invitation (shall we…)
ちょっと
a little, a bit, a small amountpolite refusal
non-subjects can be used as topics with は
は can be paraphrased and used as a question.
Chapter 4
Ｘが
introduces/presents X
Ｘがあります
There is X/will take place
ある
have or own
Ｘがいます
present a person/living being
place に thing があります。
There are (thing) in (place).
place に living がいます。
There are (living) in (place)
ＸはＹの location です。
X is (location) Y.
ＸはＹとＺのあいだです。
X is between Y and Z.
Forms of です
+
-
present
～です。
じゃないです。
past
～でした。
じゃなかったです。
Forms of ます
+
-
present
～ます。
～ません。
past
～ました。
～ませんでした。
も (also…) replaces は, が, を and goes after other particles
Duration of activities are not followed by particles (no に)
Quantity words are added before the noun or after the を particle
AとB
A and B
ＸにＹがあります。
There is Y in X.
Chapter 5
Adjectives
い-adjectives (さむい)
+
-
present
さむいです。
さむくないです。
past
さむかったです。
さむくなかったです。
いい-adjectives (irregular)
+
-
present
いいです。
よくないです。
past
よかったです。
よくなかったです。
な-adjectives (げんき（な）)
+
-
present
げんきです。
げんきじゃないです。
past
げんきでした。
げんきじゃなかったです。
Adjectives are used to describe nouns: (adjective + (い／な) + noun)
Degree adverbs (すごく／とても／ちょっと) are put before adjectives
ＸはＹが(だい)すきです。
X (really) likes Y.
ＸはＹが(だい)きらいです。
X (really) dislikes Y.
すきでもきらいでもないです。
I neither like or dislike it.
わたしのすきな
My favorite...
わたしのきらい
My least favorite...
～ましょう（か）。
Let's.../Shall we...
Counters, number words come after item, different for types of objects
Chapter 6
-te Forms
-ru verbs （る→て）
たべる→てべて
-u verbs (based off final syllable)
う、つ、る → って
む、ぶ、ぬ → んで
く → いて
EXCEPTION いく → いって
ぐ → いで
す → して
irr-verbs
する → して
くる → きて
～(te-form verb)ください。
Please do (verb) for me.
～(te-form verb)
casual request
~(te-form verb)(も)いいです(か)。
You may do…
～(te-form verb)はいけません。
You must not do… (strong) (は is a topic particle)
Describing two or more activities
[noun]を(te-form verb)、...、[noun]を(verb ending)
Verb ending determines tense for everything in sentence.
～から
Because
(situation)。(explanation)から。
(situation), because (explanation) \n - can switch order
～ましょうか。
Let me.../Shall I? (offer assistance)
Chapter 7
(-te form)います
describes action in progress/past event connected to present/result of a change
describes verbs that are
continuous states
activities that last for some time
changes that are more or less instantaneous
same conjugation as ます
-te form for adjectives and です
ーい adjectives → replace い with くて
irr adjectives → くて
ーな adjectives → replace な with で
noun +です → replace です with で
わかりません。
I don't understand. (more polite)
しりません。
I don't know. (rude)
～にん
# people
ひとり
1 person
ふたり
2 people
nounが＃人
There are...
destination of movement（に・へ）purpose of movement に verb ending
purpose of movement is a verb stem (without ます)
Chapter 8
Short Forms
Present Tense +
Type
Short Forms
Long Form Equivalent
verbs
A
よむ
よみます
い-adjectives
A
かわいい
かわいいです
な-adjectives
B
しずかだ
しずかです
noun + です
B
がくせいだ
がくせいです
Present Tense -
Type
Short Forms
Long Form Equivalent
verbs
C
よまない
よみません
い-adjectives
D
かわいくない
かわいくないです
な-adjectives
D
しずかじゃない
しずかいじゃないです
noun + です
D
がくせいじゃない
がくせいじゃないです
A → same as dictionary forms
B → replace です with だ
C → negative forms of short verbs
ru-verbs → take off final る and add ない
u-verbs → take off final -u and add -anai
if ends with う, replace with わない
irr-verbs → する→しない、くる→こない
exception → ある→ない
D → drop です after ない
Informal Speech
Short form endings are used with family, close friends, or inferiors
か is replaced with rising intonation
だ at end of sentence is usually removed or followed by ね or よ
はい and いいえ are replaced with うん and ううん
Quoting People
と is a quotation particle
～(short form ending)とおもいます
I think that...
～(short form ending)といいました
I think that... (wasn't there when uttered)
～(short form ending)ないとおもいます
I don't think that...
～(short form ending)といっていました
They said...
～(negative short form)でください
Please don't...
personはactivity(verb)のが｛すき/きらい/じょうず/へた｝です。
person (likes/dislikes/is good at/is poor at) activity
が Particle
emphasizes the subject
presents the subject in such a way that the noun will "fill in the blank"
the "blank" is like a question word
Some or Any
なにか
something (+ statements)
なにか
anything (questions)
なにも
not … anything (- statements)
Chapter 9
Past Tense Short Forms
Past Tense +
Type
Short Forms
Long Form Equivalent
verbs
A
よんだ
よんで
い-adjectives
B
かわいかった
かわいかったです
な-adjectives
C
しずかだった
しずかでした
noun + です
C
がくせいだった
がくせいでした
Past Tense -
Type
Short Forms
Long Form Equivalent
verbs
D
よまなかった
よまない
い-adjectives
B
かわいくなかった
かわいくなかったです
な-adjectives
B
しずかじゃなかった
しずかじゃなかったです
noun + です
B
がくせいじゃなかった
がくせいじゃなかったです
＋ A → replace て／で in te-forms with た／だ
＋／－ B → drop the final です in long forms
＋ C → replace でした in long forms with だった
－ D → replace い in short present tense negative ない with かった
EXCEPTIONS いく→いった いい→よかった
Qualifying Nouns
short forms of verbs can be used like adjectives
まだ～ていません
Have not… yet
(explanation)から、(situation)。
Because (explanation), (situation).(explanation), therefore, (situation).
Chapter 10
AのほうがBより(property)BよりAのほうが(property)
A is more (property) than B.
AとBとどちら(のほう)が(property)。AとBとどっち(のほう)が(property)。
Between A and B, which is more (property)?
[(class of items)のなかで]Aがいちばん(property)。
A is the most (property) [among (class of items)].
どちらの(item)がいちばん(property)。
Which (item) is the best.
Noun Assumption
If an adjective or noun follow a noun or if the noun is assumed, it can be referred to later with (adjective/noun) + の
い-adjective + noun → い-adjective の
な-adjective + noun → な-adjective の
noun の noun → noun の
(+ short form verb)つもりです
(I) intend to do...
(- short form verb)つもりです
(I) intend not to do...
Adjective + なる (to become)
い-adjective
あたたかい → あたたかくなる
な-adjective
しずか（な）→ しずかになる
noun
かいしゃいん→ かいしゃいんになる
thing
one
where
some/any...
なにか＿
だれか＿
どこか＿
not any...
なに＿も
だれ＿も
どこ＿も
Noun ＋ で
describes mean of transportation and using instruments, "using"
Using が or けど (but) at the end of a sentence gives the listener a chance to speak up or give common ground so that the listener can give an answer without including the topic in his/her response.
AからBまで
From A to B
Chapter 11
～たい
describes hopes and aspirations (い-adjective)
(verb stem)たいます
(I) want to...
(verb stem)たとおもっています
(I've) wanted to … for a long time
(verb stem)たがっている
(They) want to... (u-verb)
(activity A, past short form)り(activity B, past short form)りします
Do such things as A and B (but not exclusively).
(verb + past short form)ことがある
have done/have the experience of…(when used in questions, don't respond with こと)
AやB
A and B, for example (not exclusive).
は Particle
more natural to use は than が or を in negative sentences when there isn't a は
may follow で and に
だけ
(number + counter) + だけ - just (number)
ドライブ
drive for pleasure
うんてんする
drive (not necessarily for pleasure)
ゆめ
use 見る for sleeping dreams
use もっている or ある for visions
には
replaces (place)に to describe things that are found there
Chapter 12
Report and explanation modes
Reporting sentences (です/ます) simply explain what is/has happened.
To offer an explanation for something, use (short form predicate)んです
In questions, it requests explanations and further clarifications
For な-adjectives and nouns, use なんです
In formal writing, use のです
In casual settings, use んだ
In causal questions, replace んですか with の
Define the tense before んです
Type
Conjugation
verb
(short form)んです
い-adj
(adj)んです
な-adj
(adj)なんです
noun
(noun)なんです
てい
ているんです
(verb stem/adjective base)すぎる
too much (verb)/to excess (-ru verb)
(+ past short form/- present short form)ほうがいいです
It is better (for you) to do...
(short form predicate like んです)ので
more formal から
(- short form w/o ない)なければいけません
(I) must… (formal, written)
(- short form w/o ない)なきゃいけません
(I) must… (colloquial, spoken)
(- short form w/o ない)けない
(I) must… (written)
～でしょう (..probably)
use with short form verbs and い-adjectives or な-adjective bases and nouns
use でしょうか to invite another person's opinion
たろう - short form
use でしょ with question intonation to check if partner agrees
Chapter 13
Potential Verbs (ru-verb)
someone "can" or "has the ability" to do something; something is possible
ru-verbs
drop final -ru and add -rareru
見る → 見られる
ra-less forms are cooler but less polite
u-verbs
drop final -u and add -eru
行く → 行ける
irregular verbs
来る → 来られる
する → できる
Verbs that originally took を can take が or を in potential form
Other particles don't change
できる almost always uses takes が (を is substandard)
Can be more complex
(+ short form verb) ことができる
(- short form verb) ことができない
mostly used in writing
〜し
used in place of から when giving more than one reason or not the only reason
(short present form predicate) し、
〜そうです (It looks like, seems like it) (guess)
い-adj
drop final い and add そうです
EXCEPTION いい → よさ
おいしい → おいしそうです
な-adj
drop final な and add そうです
元気 → 元気そうです
To make negative, replace ない with なさ (or put on そう)
adjective + そう(な)
qualifies a noun
暖かそうなセーター (warm-looking sweater)
Use そうです when we lack visual evidence
Don't use そう for adj. if you have enough evidence
〜てみる (ru-verb, kana only)
"doing something tentatively", "trying something"
Not sure of outcome, but you'll do it and see what effect it might have
なら
noun A なら predicate X
X only applies to A, not more generally valid
Used as contrast and limitation
Saying something positive about item being contrasted
週間に三回
(period) に (frequency) → (frequency) per (period)
Playing Instruments
弾く - stringed, keyboard instruments
吹く - wind instruments
叩く - percussion instruments
上手に
Adjectives can modify verbs as adverbs
い-adj - drop final い and add に
な-adj - に is added
Chapter 14
ほしい (want)
(I) want (something) + がほしい
Xがほしい
"private predicate", limits to first person (like たい)
Use quotation for 2nd/3rd person or question
たがる - replaces たい when making an observation (たがっている)
ほしがる (u-verb) verb form
Usually ほしがっている to describe observation that speaker currently thinks true
〜かもしれません (may)
Sentence-final expression like でしょう
Use when not sure what is really the case but are willing to make a guess
Placed after short forms of predicates
だ is dropped after nouns and な-adjectives
あげる/くれる/もらう
When moving a thing away from center, use あげる
When moving a thing toward from center, use くれる
(giver) は/が (recipient) に (item) を あげる/くれる
もらう - receive
(recipient) は/が (giver) に/から (item) をもらう
もらう identifies more closely with receipient
〜たらどうですか
Conveys advice or recommendation
(short past form without た/だ) たらどうですか
in casual speech, shorten to たらどう or たら
can have a critical tone, safer only to use when asked for consultation
do not use for extending invitations
number + も / number + しか + negative
noun (が/を) number + counter
number word + も - "as many as"
number word + しか + negative - "as few as"/"only"
Expression Notes
開けてもいい？
asks for yes or no
わあ
say when find something exciting; "wow!"
へえ
say when you hear something amusing, hard to believe, or mildly suprising
"oh, is that right?"
んだ
short form of explaination modality んです
の more feminine short form
の？
ends most casual spoken questions
most の questions are fishing for detailed explanations for response
gender-neutral
着てみて
て-form request
なあ
after short form predicate
indicates exclamation of admiration, frustration or some such strong emotion
mostly used when talking about yourself
できる
different meanings based on context
"can do/be good at/do well"
"be completed/finished"
"appear/come into existence/be made"
Chapter 15
Volitional Form
Less formal, more casual equivalent of ましょう
ru-verbs
drop final -ru and add -you
食べる → 食べよう
u-verbs
drop finaal -u and add -ou
行く → 行こう
Irregular verbs
くる → こよう
する → しよう
Use to suggest a plan to a close friend for example
Use with question particle か to ask for an opinion in your offer or suggestion
Volitional Form + と思っています
Use to talk about our determinations (decided to/intend/plan)
Use vo. + と思います for decisions made on the spot
Use vo. + とおもっています when you already decided to do something
When using with volitionals, you are talking about your intention
When using with present tense, you are talking about your prediction
〜ておく (u-verb)
Describes an action performed in preparation for something
Usually shortened to とく in speech
Using Sentences to Qualify Nouns (qualifier sentences)
Use sentences with short form verb endings to describe nouns
When subject is in qualifier sentence, replace は with が
Qualifier sentence + noun is used like a normal noun
Expression Notes (the use of short forms in casual speech)
予定ある？
Particles は, が, and を are frequently dropped in casual speech
か is dropped except in special cases (vo. + か)
(replaced with rising intonation)
思ってるんだけど
思ってる is a contraction of 思っている
Contractions appear more frequently in casual speech
言ってた
Contraction of 言っていた
だよ
だ is systemically dropped at the end of a sentence or followed by よ or ね
〜けど/〜が
Not only used for "but", can present background for what you're about to say
(short present verb) + 予定です
Something is scheduled to take place
Put negative on verb
見える/見られる
They have different meanings
見える means something is spontaneously visible
聞こえる means something is spontaneously audible
〜目
References position of a series (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
Put after number + counter
一日目 - first day
Chapter 16
〜てあげる/くれる/もらう
Use te-form verb + transaction verb to describe giving and receiving services
てあげる
Do something for the sake of others or somebody does something for somebody else
Doesn't change meaning but emphasizes that action was performed "on demand" or "as a favor"
Beneficiaries use the particle of the main verb
Use 〜のために if main verb doesn't have a place for a beneficiary, "doing somebody a favor"
てくれる
Use when somebody does something for us
When explicitly stating the beneficiary, use the main verb's particle
てもらう
Get, persuade, or arrange for somebody to do something for us
Person performing the action followed by に
Can sometimes acknowledge person's goodwill to do something
ていただけませんか
Makes requests, differ in politeness
ていただけませんか - polite request from nonpeer or stranger
てくれませんか - polite as ください, used in host-family contexts
てくれない - casual, used when speaking with members of your peer group
(short present form) + といい(です)ね
Say that you hope something nice happens/wishing good luck for others
Use といいんですが (polite) or といいんだけど (casual) when referring to hoping for good things for your own good
Turn main verb into potential when hoping for things under their/your control
Use てくれる before といいんですが when hoping you will do something for me
〜時 (when)
(sentence A) 時、(sentence B) - When A, B
A ends with short form or noun + の
Use tense from when B took place (has more twists)
If A is current or future when B takes place, use present
When both happen in the past, A keeps present
When both happen at same time, both are present
If B happens during A, A uses ている when A is an event/action
If A is in the past when B took place, use past
Use even when both have yet to happen
〜てすみません/てごめん
Describe things you have done and want to apologize for
When apologizing for something you've failed to do, use なくて
Replace short negative verb final い with くて
Culture Notes
Adjectives into nouns
For い-adj, replace last い with さ
For some な-adj, replace last な with さ
おごる
おごる - casual
ごちそうする - polite alternative (invite/pay for meal)
Chapter 17
〜そうです (I hear)
Sentence-final expression; "seemingly"
Also presents "hearsay report", "heard that"
Use short forms before そうです ("looks like" may share forms)
Can also report on things from sources: "according to"
(source)によると、...そうです。
〜って
Short, informal version of と to quote what you have heard
Can use って in place of と with verbs that end with う (replace final う) (て if after ん)
〜たら
Aたら、B (If A, B; B is realized if and when condition A is met)
Use short past forms + ら (たら/だら)
Clause before たら may describe a possible condition
B cannot happen before A
Sometimes A is very probable and B will happen soon after or immediately after A
Up to intepretation
Also describes hyptothetical or unreal conditions with probable result
〜なくてもいいです
Describes what you do not need to do/does not need to
Take negative sentence in short form and replace final い with なくてもいいです
なくて - negative te-form
Drop も to be more casual
〜みたいです
Follows noun, someone/body "resembles" that noun
Can use when referring to yourself when not clear of situation
Can follow verbs when something "appears to be the case"
Follows short form verbs
Can be used for adjectives, but そうです is more commor
〜前に/てから
(present short form) + 前に describes events before something happens
verb A まえに verb B - B before A
A is always present tense
(te-form verb) + から describes what happened after
verb A + てから - A and then B/B after A
Can describe state of B after A
Chapter 18
Transitivity Pairs
Transitive - verbs describe humans acting on things
そして - "and last but not least" (to say something remarkable)
それから - "and then"
Adds item that comes later in time or order of importance
Chapter 20
Extra-modest Expressions
Talks about modesty of our own actions/family/company
Almost always used in long forms
Use in very formal occasions
Same effect as adding sir/ma'am at end of sentence
Also used when talking to customers
Cannot be used to describe actions performed by others
Expressions
Use when doing something out of respect for somebody
お(stem)する - I humbly do...
Not all verbs use this form
もらう → いただく
あげる → さしあげる
Don't use te-form
うかがう portrays yourself as humble while visiting or asking questions
Extra-modest expressions show respect to listeners
Humble expressions shows respect to someone that appears in the event you are describing
Honorific expression raise the subject
Extra-modest expressions lower the subject (I) and raises the person the listening to you
Humble expressions lower the subject and raises the profile of the person talking about (に)
〜ないで
(- short form) + で - without doing (verb)
Did something without doing something else
Questions within Larger Sentences
Expresses ideas such as "I can't remember (how to...)"
Use like noun with か acting as particle
(Question-word question か / Yes or no question かどうか)わかりません/しりません。
Yes or no question can use か
Use short forms before か
だ is usually dropped
んですか → のか
Use が instead of は on subject in question
name という item
Item called "name"
Item has a name but the person you are talking to may or may not be familiar with it
〜やすい/〜にくい
(verb stem) + やすい "easy-to-do"
(verb stem) + にくい "hard-to-do"
Subject can be a place, tool, etc...
Focuses on psychological ease or difficulty
Odd to use to define difficulty as a success rate
Chapter 21
Passive Sentences
Expresses dissatisfaction when you are inconvenienced by something somebody else has done; "affective passive"
(victim) は (villain) に (evil act)
ru-verbs
Drop final -ru and add -rareru
食べる → 食べられる
u-verbs
Drop final -u and -areru
行く → 行かれる
irregular verbs
くる → こわれる
する → される
Passive forms are ru-verbs
"victim" has been unfavorably affects by "villain's" act
Cannot express your suffering from an adjectival situation or someone failing to do something
Some passive sentences are not perceptibly unfavorable and not necessarily inconvenienced
"direct passive" - non-human subjects that aren't inconvenienced
〜てある
Situation has been purposely brought about by somebody
Describes a current state
Use 〜ておくました for things done in preparation/advice
Use が for subject
Almost exclusively with transitive verbs
ている does not imply human intervention
〜間に
A(ている)間にB - B takes place, while A
A is always present tense
A can be noun + の
B is of short duration and happens within the bounds of A
If B extends throughout A, use 間
Adjective + する
To make something X
Same conjugation as なる
〜てほしい
Wish that you want somebody to do something
(私は) person に te-verb ほしい - I want (person) to do...
If you don't want them to do something, negate ほしい or the verb
〜たい - I want to do...
noun がはしい - I want something
te-form ほしい - I want somebody to do...
All are private predicates
Expression Notes
ないです
Alternate negative form of ある
なかったです
Chapter 22
Causative Sentences
Describes who makes/lets someone do something
Ambiguous
ru-verbs
Drop final -ru and add -saseru
食べる → 食べさせる
u-verbs
Drop final -u and add -aseru
行く → 行かせる
irregular verbs
くる → こさせる
する → させる
(director) は (cast) に (action)
Director makes/allows cast to perform the action
Cast particle gets を if
Caused action is reflex or
Original verb did not call for を
If a helping verb follows the causative verb, assume it is a 'let" causative
Use causative + てください to ask for permission or to volunteer to do something (please let me do...)
verb stem + なさい
Command that has a strong implication that you are "talking down" to somebody
Appropriate for teacher → student, parent → child, exam questions
You think you are more mature, know better, and should be obeyed
Can express "don't do" with (short verb)のをやめなさい
〜ば
Clause A ば Clause B - If A, then B
+ verbs
Drop final -u and add -eba
- verbs
Drop final い and add ければ
い-adj/- predicates
Drop final い and add ければ
な-adj/+ nouns
だ becomes なら or であれば
A part describes condition, provided that consequence described in B will follow
In this pattern, A guarantees a good result in B
Often used to advice A, where B contains vacuous generic expressions like 大丈夫です or いいんです
〜のに
AのにB
A, but contrary to expectations, B, too
B, despite the fact A
A is short form, 〜な or なです appears as な
のに connects two facts, cannot connect non-factual sentences, use が or けづ instead
〜のような/〜のように
noun A のような noun B - B like/similiar to A
B has some quality/appearance as A or A is an example of B
A のように describes action done in same way as A or characteristic comparable to A, "like A"
Interchangable with みたいな/みたいに
Chapter 23
Causative-passive Sentences
Passive forms of causative sentences
Made/harasseed/talked into doing something you did not want to do
ru-verbs
Drop final -ru and add -sase-rareru
食べる → 食べさせられる
u-verbs
If ends with す, drop -u and add -ase-rareru
話す → 話させられる
Else, drop final -u and add -asare-ru
書く → 書かされる
irregular verbs
くる → こさせられる
する → させられる
(puppet) は/が (puppet master) に (action)
puppet - forced into performing action
puppet master - wields power over/manipulates puppet
Actions are switched between causative-passive and causative
Puppet was, by the puppet master, made to do something
〜ても
AてもB B, even if A
B is still true in case of A
More straight-forward than using たら
Use te-forms, put negative なくて on te-forms
ても does not have tense, place tense on B
〜ことにする
(short present)ことにする "decide to do"
Make construction volitional to suggest an activity, implied that was made after a deliberation
ことにしている "do something as a regular practice"
Made up your mind that you should do something and have stuck to it
〜まで
Aまで - 'till A
In AまでB, A describes change that coincides with/causes end of B
A is usually a change, always positive present tense
If subject of A is different than subject of B, mark subject of A with が
Can describe past situation
〜方
(verb stem)方
"the way in which the action is performed"
"how to do..." (not question)
If noun + particle comes before verb, replace particle with の or put の after particle
〜方 is a noun
Making Sense of Japanese
If the subject is known or obvious, drop it; use the "zero pronoun".
If not, use a pronoun as needed.
が indicates the subject of the upcoming verb, denotes that the subject is the suprising factor/new information.
は never denotes the subject or object, but distinguishes the topic from others, denotes that the action related to the topic is the suprising factor/new information.
What comes after は is somehow related to the topic.
私は行きます or "As for me, [I] went." but not "I went."
In the beginning of ficitional stories, treat は as "the".
In giving and receiving verbs (上げる、呉れる、貰う), treat yourself as the known giver, take ownership of the object being given, and drop known pronouns.
~からだ -> That (previous sentence) is because of (preceding karada).
ほど - AはBほど[verb]です。-> Aは[verb]です。How [verb] is A? It's so [verb] that B.
"Final statement." "How much did you do your final statement?" "I did it so much that what-I-said-before."
知っている to know (actively in their brains), 知る to know (first learn about)
Things themselves do わかる, uses は/が
present tense - it is clear
past tense - it just became clear
ている - it is already clear
ため - "because/owing to" when following completed action/unalterable task, "for the purpose of" when following with incomplete/future action
つもり following a "perfective verb" means believed, convinced
Early-warning elements
もし warns of if-statement
まるで warns of comparison
なぜなら、etc warns of explanation, probably with karada at end
ただ warns that だけ is coming
たとえ warns of て(で)も
あるいわ warns of かもしれない
ある and で～ある are not the same, で～ある=です・だ
"Go do so-and so" -> "Do so-and-so and come"
Counter after noun as abverb -> Noun out of larger supply, Counter no noun -> THE # nouns.
"Adjectives" wait for a noun that "releases the built-up grammatical suspense"
"Abverbs" wait for a verb with "similar grammatical completion"
