Chapter20.tgnotes

Chapter 20: Northern Eurasia, 1500-1800
	During the period of European exploration and trading, different Eurasian empires chose different routes for handling new inventions and their own heritage, which leads to either success or decline later in history.

I.	Japan Reunification
	Japan underwent major political and social changes, from a more medieval-like homogeneous samurai society, to a modern society with civil laws overriding traditions.

	A.	Civil War and the Invasion of Korea, 1500-1603
		During the 1500-1800, the Japanese islands were unified by a feudal system composed of by the samurais, the daimyos, and the Shogun. Hideyoshi, a successful warlord, attempted to invade the mainland and Korea.

	B.	The Tokugawa Shogunate, to 1800
		During the Tokugawa Shogunate, daimyos retained a lot of power, and the society became more economic then militaristic.

	C.	Japan and the Europeans
		Japanese people were fairly cautious of the European people and the Christian religion, but let them trade to a limited extent.

	D.	Elite Decline and Social Crisis
		The elite samurais had a lower positions than before being displaced by wealthy merchants. The Forty-Seven Ronin demonstrated that civil laws are ruled over traditional samurai values more and more.

II.	The Later Ming and Early Qing Empires
	The Ming empire fell soon because of internal rebellions and external conflicts with the Manchus and the Mongols. The Qing achieved more land geographically, but because of population pressure, corruption, and a reluctancy to industrialize, it soon started to decline.

	A.	The Ming Empire, 1500-1644
		After the earlier period of economic growth, from 1500 on the Ming Empire encountered multiple problems regarding inflation, strikes, colder weather, and failure to adapt to African and American crops.
	
	B.	Ming Collapse and the Rise of the Qing
		The Manchu people successfully exploited Ming's preoccupation defending against the Mongols and rebels to gain the Chinese land for themselves. They assimilated to the Chinese culture as well.
	
	C.	Trading Companies and Missionaries
		Since 1517, Portuguese and Dutch traders have been coming to China and Taiwan for trading purposes. Jesuits like Matteo Ricci also came to China to spread his faith.
	
	D.	Emperor Kangxi
		Emperor Kangxi was a clever and diplomatic emperor who welcomed Jesuit missionaries and resolved the northern frontier crisis wisely.
	
	E.	Chinese Influence on Europe
		Chinese exports awed Europeans as much as European things did to Chinese people. The Qing political philosophy also intrigued western thinkers like Voltaire.

	F.	Tea and Diplomacy
		One of the most important exports to Europe was tea (from Fujian Chinese *te*). The Macartney mission unsuccessfully attempted to establish two-way trade in areas more than Guangdong alone.

	G.	Population and Social Stress
		Despite all the advancement Qing has made over Ming, population pressure induced many social and environmental problems.
	
III.	The Russian Empire
	The Russian empire was an example of a state successfully modernizing itself into one of the great European powers, under the rule of Peter the Great and his successors.

	A.	The Drive Across Northern Asia
		In order to gain trade routes, it was necessary for the Russians (lead by the Strogonovs) to cross Siberia as the ocean routes in the west were all blocked.

	B.	Russian Society and Politics to 1725
		Russia was a multinational empire just like many other land-based empires of that period, but Cossacks were an interesting people with allegiance toward chiefs of a band rather than toward the official. After the Romanovs gained power, serfs started to be legally tied to the land and slavery started.

	C.	Peter the Great
		Tsar Peter the Great traveled to western Europe in hope to reform and modernize Russia's military and economy, by encouraging trade with the western European countries.

	D.	Consolidation of the Empire
		Catherine the Great who used a *coup d'État* to gain power pushed the western border much more into Europe and thus achieved several ports that can be used for trading.

Chapter21.tgnotes

Chapter 21: Revolutionary Changes in the Atlantic World, 1750-1850
	During the 18th century both Europe and the New World underwent a period of revolutions, that contributed to the independence of the US and the Republic of Haiti.

I.	Prelude to Revolution: The Eighteenth-Century Crisis
	The Enlightenment was surely a movement to increase human knowledge and depth of thinking, but its ideas were met with colonial wars and Counter Enlightenment in some common people.
	A.	Colonial Wars and Fiscal Crises
		In both Europe mainland and the New World, wars dragged the colonial powers one-after-one toward fiscal crises.
	B.	The Enlightenment and the Old Order
		The Enlightenment was a social movement that emphasized individual freedom, although condemned by the Catholic Church and some more conservative governments like that of France.
	C.	Folk Culture and Popular Protest
		In some parts of the world, country folks resisted Enlightenment ideas and protested for the return of tradition.

II.	The American Revolution, 1775-1800
	The American Revolution was a revolution against British tyranny with regards to tax collecting. The democratic government that resulted from the revolution was first of its kind, but was nowhere near true democracy.
	A.	Frontiers and Taxes
		The British Parliament attempted to cut down the costs of maintaining a longer frontier, and to impose more taxes on the colonies.
	B.	The Course of Revolution, 1775-1783
		After the publication of *Common Sense* written by Thomas Paine, George Washington and the Continental Congress essentially declared war on Great Britain, which they won with French support.
	C.	The Construction of Republican Political Structures, to 1800
		During the Constitutional Convention a new Constitution was established as a model of democracy, but it imposed many restrictions on voters.

III.	The French Revolution, 1789-1815
	France had a similar fiscal crisis as Great Britain did, but through the cruel Revolution and the period of Napoleon, the monarchy was restored.
	A.	French Society and Fiscal Crisis
		After the Austrian Succession War France was in much debt, and she attempted to impose more taxes on the wealthy First and Second Estates, who had most of the money in the country but payed the least tax.
	B.	Protest Turns to Revolution, 1789-1792
		At first, the protest of the Third Estate against the others (with women involved) was supposed to be a democratic movement that establishes a new Constitution.
	C.	The Terror, 1793-1794
		During the period in France called the Terror, Maximilien Robespierre and other Jacobins arrested and killed people who supposedly denied the Revolution. He himself got executed on the guillotine as well.
	D.	Reaction and the Rise of Napoleon, 1795-1815
		Napoleon Bonaparte was the first popular dictator in Europe, supported by the people who wanted to have more social order. He eventually was defeated in battle, leading to his final exile. The French monarchy was then restored.

IV.	Revolution Spreads, Conservatives Respond, 1789-1850
	The French revolution spread to other parts of Europe and even French colonies, sometimes with but sometimes without success.
	A.	The Haitian Revolution, 1789-1804
		The Haitian Revolution started as a continuation of the French Revolution, but then after the success of François Dominique Toussaint L'Ouverture, slavery was abolished and the free republic of Haiti declared independence.
	B.	The Congress of Vienna and Conservative Retrenchment, 1815-1820
		The Alliance led by Prince Klemens von Metternich restored the French monarchy while at the same time started to oppress revolutions in other countries.
	C.	Nationalism, Reform, and Revolution, 1821-1850
		In general, revolutions did not achieve their intended purpose, as they were opposed by the aristocracy *and* the peasants who worked as military.

Chapter22.tgnotes

Chapter 22: The Early Industrial Revolution, 1760-1851
	The Industrial Revolution, originated in Great Britain, radically
	transformed humans' way of life, and brought many powerful kingdoms
	outside Europe to their feet.

I.	Causes of the Industrial Revolution
	Britain was the first country to start the Industrial Revolution, because
	of its stable government and population growth.

	A.	Population Growth
		During the early 17th century, population in England increased
		rapidly because of better resistance against diseases, more reliable
		food supplies and more job opportunities.

	B.	The Agricultural Revolution
		The Agricultural Revolution took place in Europe, leading to enhanced
		farming techniques like crop rotation, and the acceptance of New World
		crops like potatoes and maize.

	C.	Trade and Inventiveness
		In Europe and the United States, trade got more active because of the
		general increase of wealth, and technology flourished as French and
		British governments encouraged exploration and discovery.

	D.	Britain and Continental Europe
		Britain had a head start in the process of industrialization because
		of its relative peace, lack of government controlling measures, and
		effective transportation methods; other parts of Europe quickly caught
		up after 1815.

II.	The Technological Revolution
	The Technological Revolution that followed Industrial Revolution made
	mechanical inventions affordable to manufacture and use.

	A.	Mass Production: Pottery
		With the increasing demand for pottery from common people in Great
		Britain, Josiah Wedgwood utilized division of labor, steam engine, and
		the use of potter's wheel to make a lot of money.

	B.	Mechanization: The Cotton Industry
		With the invention of the water frame and the mule, cotton production
		in England became feasible and profitable, while at the same time
		making cotton the most valuable export from North America.

	C.	The Iron Industry
		Iron became remarkably cheap to produce with the use of coke with
		puddling, and interchangeable parts in machines became the norm.

	D.	The Steam Engine
		The steam engine, first invented by Thomas Newcomen, was improved by
		James Watt to be feasible in copper mines, and later in ships as well.

	E.	Railroads
		Starting from Great Britain, the United States and the Europe all
		built railroads, that brought comfort and speed to travelers, and
		profit and better economy to the railroad companies and the countries.

	F.	Communication over Wires
		After the invention of battery by Alessandro Volta, inventors in
		both Great Britain and the United States invented the electric
		telegraph, thus started a new age of information transmission.

III.	The Impact of the Early Industrial Revolution

	A.	The New Industrial Cities
		In newly industrialized cities like London, there were no sewage
		systems, and the water sources, the streets, and the atmosphere were
		severely polluted with all sorts of gross matters.

	B.	Rural Environments
		In North America, trees and forests were cut down by pioneers and
		cotton farmers, creating disastrous effects on the land. In Europe,
		the change to underground resources means that wood is used less and
		less. Better transportation was one of the things that benefited the
		rural areas.

	C.	Working Conditions
		Working conditions were terrible for most people, especially for
		women and children, who did not get any say in their work conditions
		and were paid much less.

	D.	Changes in Society
		Comparatively, factory workers were better off than the people holding
		obsoleted arts like hand looming. The entrepreneurs were the ones who
		really gained social positions through the Industrialization.

IV.	New Economic and Political Belief Systems
	With Industrialization, new beliefs like Laissez Faire and positivism
	appeared. Unions also contributed to better work conditions for women and
	children.

	A.	Laissez Faire and Its Critics
		In Great Britain, the concept of Laissez Faire was greatly celebrated
		by people like Adam Smith, while in other parts of Europe countries
		used high tariffs to protect local economy. In France positivism
		dominated, giving merchants another chance to do "good" and modernize
		the society.

	B.	Protests and Reforms
		In Great Britain, union movements eventually led to better work
		conditions, while not in continental Europe.

V.	The Limits of Industrialization Outside the West
	Industrialization did reach outside the West, but no countries fully and
	successfully developed the level seen in Europe, and therefore fell.

	A.	Egypt
		At first, the ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, recognized the need for
		Industrialization and stepped towards it; but this attempt was
		eventually terminated by Great Britain.

	B.	India
		India was partially industrialized by Britain in regards to its
		railroad system, but despite the attempt by some Indian entrepreneurs
		industrialization in other areas stagnated.

	C.	China
		Despite the human and natural resources China had, it/we did not
		industrialize under the corrupt and conservative Qing elite. We were
		defeated by Britain with their superior armored ships.

		(Sorry for making this personal, but this really was a very dark time
		in the entire history of China.)

Chapter23.tgnotes

Chapter 23: State Building and Economic Transformation in the Americas, 1800-1890
	Virtually every country in the Americas achieved independence during the
	1800s, but with a handful of exceptions their economy was deteriorating
	compared to colonial times.

I.	Independence in Latin America, 1800-1830
	After the success of Napoleon in Spain and Portugal, sooner or later
	their colonies started to split creating their own states.
	A.	Roots of Revolution, to 1810
		While the revolutionary ideas did spread to Latin America, the
		undermining of Spanish and Portuguese powers was the main reason of
		the polarization in the Spanish and Portuguese colonial societies.
	B.	Spanish South America, 1810-1825
		Mixed interests of patriots and higher-class citizens wishing to
		establish their own *juntas* contributed to the beginning of the
		revolution. Simón Bolívar, with the help from José de San Martín, led
		the revolutionary forces.
	C.	México, 1820-1823
		In México, conflict between the colonial-born creoles and poor Spanish
		immigrants sparked the rebellion of Padre Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
		and José María Morelos, which ended with the compromise of
		establishing the Monarchy of México, soon becoming the Republic of
		México.
	D.	Brazil, to 1831
		After King João VI left Brazil for Portugal, he left his son Pedro in
		Brazil as his regent; but soon Pedro crowned himself Pedro I of
		Brazil, establishing Brazil as an independent country. During the
		reign of his son, King Pedro II, republicans overthrew the monarchy
		and established a democratic republic.

II.	The Problem of Order, 1825-1890
	American, especially Latin American countries failed to maintain order
	under pressure within and without.
	A.	Constitutional Experiments
		While the second Constitution set up in the United States did prove to
		work reliably, the lack of autonomous experiences in Latin America
		led the the frequent failures of constitutions.
	B.	Personalist Leaders
		In both the United States and Latin America, personalist rulers like
		Andrew Jackson and José Antonio Páez challenged the constitutions from
		their relatively militaristic backgrounds.
	C.	The Threat of Regionalism
		In Latin America, most attempts at creating inter-state federations
		failed, as seen in the failure of Gran Colombia to hold Ecuador and
		Venezuela together. In the U.S., the Union was preserved only through
		enormous efforts in the Civil War.
	D.	Foreign Interventions and Regional Wars
		During the nineteenth century, there were wars between the U.S. and
		Great Britain, México and the U.S., México and France, Chile and its
		northern neighbors, and wars between Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, and
		Paraguay.
	E.	Native Peoples and the Nation-State
		In the Americas, Amerindian tribes all follow a pattern of adaptation,
		resistence, and defeat. Revolts such as Tecumseh's alliance in the
		War of 1812, and the Caste War in México, all ended unhappily for the
		native populations.

III.	The Challenge of Social and Economic Change
	Eventually things started to stablize, and development and immigration
	gave opportunities to many people, but also posed problems to the states.
	A.	Abolition
		In the U.S., abolition happened after the Civil War, i.e. 1865. In
		Brazil, it happened afte the Paraguayan war, in 1888. In the
		Caribbeans, British, French, and Dutch colonies first abolished
		slavery; Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico abolished slavery
		completely in 1886.
	B.	Immigration
		Since the 1830s, immigration has increased almost ten-fold in almost
		the entire New World, most of them from Asia and S. and E. Europe. At
		the same time, nativists imposed prejudice and racism towards the
		immigrants.
	C.	American Cultures
		The new immigrants to the Americas both influenced and were influenced
		by the original culture, causing acculturation.
	D.	Women's Rights and the Struggle for Social Justice
		Since the meeting in Seneca Falls, women's rights in the United States
		and beyond improved so that they were a part of the economy. People
		of African descent were still discriminated against, but less so in
		Latin America than the United States.
	E.	Development and Underdevelopment
		Both internationally and nationally, there were developed regions and
		underdeveloped regions. Generally northern U.S. was the best
		developed, while the Caribbeans and Latin America underdeveloped.
	F.	Altered environments
		Although the first national parks were established in Canada during
		this period of time, economic growth and new technologies exhausted
		natural resources

Chapter25.tgnotes

Chapter 25: Africa, India, and the New British Empire, 1750-1870
	The British Empire, through careful control over trade and colonized
	population, became the strongest nation in the world

I.	Changes and Exchanges in Africa
	Several changes like new states and abolition happened in Africa during the
	18th and 19th centuries.
	
	A.	New African States
		In Southern Africa, Shaka created a united Zulu empire. In the north,
		the Hausa Muslims created the Sokoto Caliphate (initiated by Usuman
		dan Fodio).

	B.	Modernization in Egypt and Ethiopia
		Muhammad Ali in Egypt and Emperor Téwodros in Ethiopia both tried to
		westernizing their states, to varying degrees of success because of
		British involvement.

	C.	European Penetration
		France tried to conquer Algeria, but was met with resistence; civilian
		expeditions such as those of David Livingstone and Henry Morton
		Stanley sought to explore the river systems and Christianity in
		Africa.

	D.	Abolition and Legitimate Trade
		With the abolition movement enforced by the British, other
		“legitimate” trading activities like palm oil trading were developed,
		contributing the success of some recaptives like King Jaja of Opobo.

	E.	Secondary Empires in Eastern Africa
		In Eastern Africa and Southern Arabia, secondary empires were formed
		in Oman, Zanzibar, and several "personal empires" such as Tippu Tip's.

II.	India Under British Rule
	Under a racist British rule, Indian ordinaries' had a even lower status than
	before, while Indian princes lived a luxurious life under the British gov.
	
	A.	Company Men
		The British East India Company (EIC) successfully drove the Dutch and
		the French out of business in India, while preventing new nawabs from
		gaining too much power.

	B.	Raj and Rebellion, 1818—1857
		The EIC set up a British raj in India, Pakistan, and Bengal,
		westernizing the Indian population; however the ordinaries in India
		were oppressed even more from the new "traditions" imposed by
		high-caste Hindus or British magisters. The Sepoy Rebellion gained its
		traction because of the advanced British weapons.

	C.	Political Reform and Industrial Impact
		The ICS and other British reforms like a railway system greatly
		simplified Indian daily life, although racism is always present.

	D.	Indian Nationalism
		After the failed Sepoy Rebellion, Indians had a higher level of
		nationalism, as seen in intellectuals like Rammohun Roy and the Indian
		National Congress.

III.	Britain's Eastern Empire
	Britain also encouraged commerce, advancements in shipping, and the exploration
	of Australia and New Zealand.
	
	A.	Colonies and Commerce
		Britain gained many former colonies of France and Netherlands because
		of Napoleon's advancement and fall. Afrikaners in South Africa
		were a unique ethnicity who opposed British rule despite their
		European heritage. Singapore and Burma were annexed by the British as
		well.

	B.	Imperial Policies and Shipping
		Britain switched from a mercantilist approach to free trade, resulting
		in more trading activities and more profit, especiall coinciding with
		the invention of clipper ships.

	C.	Colonization of Austrailia and New Zealand
		James Cook's first adventures to South Pacific opened doors to
		Australia for European settlers, but also like Native Americas native
		population died because of diseases. Great Britain employed a
		government similar to that of Canada to prevent a second American
		Revolution.

	D.	New Labor Migrations
		Indentured laborers from India, China, and Africa were recruited to
		many British colonies.

Chapter26.tgnotes

Chapter 26: The New Power Balance: 1850-1900
	Because of industrialization and nationalism, some more homogeneous states
	were strengthened, while the conservative states were weakened by the same
	forces.

I.	New Technologies and the World Economy
	The Industrialization had its continued effect with the introduction of more
	new technologies.

	A.	Railroads
		Railroads were ubiquitous in industrialized countries, with Japan
		attempting to train its own railroad engineers

	B.	Steamships and Telegraph Cables
		Steel-made steamships replaced wooden sailing boats, and the submarine
		telegraph cables were laid.

	C.	The Steel and Chemical Industries
		The industry learned of new ways to manufacture steel, dyes, and
		explosives, but at the same time the environment is damaged.

	D.	Electricity
		Inventions by Michael Faraday and Thomas Edison changed the lives of
		human forever (electric motor and incandescent light). New colleges
		were established for electric engineering in Japan.

	E.	World Trade and Finance
		Steamships allowed profitable trade even for bulky or cherishable items,
		but the global trade was vulnerable toward economic recessions.

II.	Social Changes
	Many population and social changes resulted because of urbanization and
	migration to the Americas.

	A.	Population and Migrations
		Because of the Irish famine of 1847-48, fewer epidemics, and mroe food
		in the Americas, European population in the New World rose dramatically.
		So did Asian immigration from India, China, and Japan.

	B.	Urbanization and Urban Environments
		Urbanization had three major effects on industrialized urban centers:
		better sanitation, prettier housing and city plans, but also air
		pollution in cities like London.

	C.	Middle-Class Women's "Separate Sphere"
		During the Victorian Age, women were considered to be part of a
		separate sphere than men. Most women were housemakers and children
		carer, although some suffrage movements existed in both the U.S. and the
		U.K.

	D.	Working-Class Women
		Working-class women had the hardest lives of all; they were frequently
		forced to send their young children to factories, and themselves had to
		do hard and time-consuming works in factories and homes.

III.	Socialism and Labor Movements
	Because of the larger gap between the well-to-do and the working-class, there
	were many labor union and socialist movements.

	A.	Marx and Socialism
		Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels argued in the *Manifesto of the Communist
		Party* that the conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
		will ultimately lead to a social revolution.

	B.	Labor Unions and Movements
		Many labor unions were formed to improve workers' conditions since
		1850, and with universal male suffrage, contemporary socialists argued
		that gaining a majority of seats in the law-making body would suffice,
		not a cultural revolution.

IV.	Nationalsim and the Rise of Italy, Germany, and Japan
	With the help of nationalsim, Italy, Germany, and Japan all grew to
	domestic powers.

	A.	Language and National Identity in Europe before 1871
		Other than France, states and their languages coincided only rarely,
		but some failed revolutions made it clear that a state need to unify
		its people speaking the same language.

	B.	The Unification of Italy, 1860-1870
		Even with the opposition of Pope Pius IX, Count Camillo Benso di
		Cavour of Piedmont-Sardinia and revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi made
		Italy a unified state.
	
	C.	The Unification of Germany, 1866-1871
		Under the rule of King Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck,
		the Prussian Empire gained territories from the neighboring Austrian
		Empire and France, formingthe North German Confederation and later the
		German Empire.
	
	D.	The West Challenges Japan
		With Matthew C. Perry's visit to Japan, Japanese lords in Sastuma and
		Choshu united together to rebel against the Tomikawa Shougunate.
	
	E.	The Meiji Restoration and the Modernization of Japan, 1868-1894
		With the restored emperor Mutsuhito and the Meiji oligarchs, Japan was
		transformed into an extremely powerful nation with an army modeled
		after Prussia and a navy after Great Britain.
	
	F.	Nationalism and Social Darwinism
		Many nations such as Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary used
		nationalism to maintain the status quo, while some scholars like
		Herbert Spencer misinterpreted Charles Darwin's idea of natural
		selection as being pertaining to race and wealth.
	
V.	The Great Powers of Europe
	The Germany Empire was the most powerful nation in Europe; the liberal states
	of France and Great Britain stayed powerful, while the conservative states
	grew weaker because of their diverse peoples.

	A.	Germany at the Center of Europe
		Germany, situated at the center of Europe, grew in all aspects, until
		the coronation of King Wilhelm II who deposed of Chancellor Bismarck.

	B.	The Liberal Powers: France and Great Britain
		France was limited by its staggering population in its race against
		Germany. Great Britain had problems with the Catholic Irish people,
		India, and Russia.

	C.	The Conservative Powers: Russia and Austria-Hungary
		Both of the conservative powers were weakened by nationalism because
		of ethnic diversity with in the nations, as shown in the
		Russo-Japanese war.

VI.	China, Japan, and the Western Powers
	China grew weaker while Japan grew stronger, leaving China vulnerable to
	Japanese attacks.
	
	A.	China in Turmoil
		There was no effective revolutions taking place in China, and the
		corrupt Empress Dowager Cixi opposed industrializing.
	
	B.	Japan Confronts China
		As Japan grew stronger and China weaker, Yamagato Aritomo successfully
		ceded Taiwan, southern Manchuria, and Korea.

Chapter28.tgnotes

Chapter 28: The Crisis of the Imperial Order, 1900-1929
	During early 20th century, the imperial order in Europe was challenged by
	the Great War, now known as World War I, which brought severe casualties
	to all the belligerents, and at the same time more technological
	innovation.

I.	Origins of the Crisis in Europe and the Middle East
	The war originates in the military alliances in Europe, nationalism, and
	the weakening of Ottoman power.

	A.	The Ottoman Empires and Balkans
		In the nineteenth century, Ottoman forces weakened, making possible
		rebellion in the Balkans. The Young Turk movement deposed the sultan
		for a cultural revolution.

	B.	Nationalism, Alliances, and Military Strategy
		The Triple Alliance and the Entente formed as military alliances,
		along with rigid railroad timetable, allowed for high-level of
		military readiness.

II.	The “Great War” and the Russian Revolutions, 1914-1918
	The Great War ends up being a stalemate in Europe alone, until the United
	States joined on the Allies side. At the same time, Vladimir Lenin and his
	followers seized the Russian government, which was extremely unpopular
	because of corruption and participation in the war.

	A.	Stalemate, 1914-1917
		During 1914-1917, trenches, modern machine guns, and battleships made
		the Western Front stalemate.

	B.	The Home Front and the War Economy
		Civilians on both sides suffered, and women were drafted as auxiliary
		workers in Great Britain. The United States made lucrative deals with
		France and Great Britain.

	C.	The Ottoman Empire at War
		The British used diplomacy to encourage Arabs and Jews to revolt
		against the Ottoman Empire, and led to the fall of the empire.

	D.	Double Revolution in Russia
		During the February Revolution Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, allowing
		Alexander Kerensky's provisional government to rule, until Vladimir
		Lenin's Bolsheviks seized power in the October Revolution.

	E.	The End of the War in Western Europe, 1917-1918
		The relaunching of the unrestricted bombing costed the Germans the
		neutrality of the United States, and eventually the victory of the
		war.

III.	Peace and Dislocation in Europe
	After the war Europe saw a period of peace, after the influenza epidemic
	and the German hyperinflation.

	A.	The Impact of the War
		Refugees from southern and eastern Europe went to the Americas and
		France; a flu epidemic killed one in every forty; environmental
		damages took a decade to recover.

	B.	The Peace Treaties
		During the peace talk in Paris, three delegates from France, Great
		Britain, and the United States carved up Europe into pieces, a plan
		that satisfied no one. Austria-Hungary fell apart, but Germany
		suffered nominal losses only.

	C.	Russian Civil War and the New Economic Policy
		After the Russian Civil War which the communists won, Lenin instituted
		the NEP to provide a capitalist base for later communism. After his
		death, Joseph Stalin seized power.

	D.	An Ephemeral Peace
		After the German hyperinflation the world saw a period of peace.

IV.	China and Japan: Contrasting Destinies
	While Guomindang leadership failed to modernize China despite numerous
	revolutions, Japan grew even more belligerent and technologically
	advanced.

	A.	Social and Economic Change
		Japan was the fastest growing nation in the world. People widely
		adopted foreign ways, especially in school. Conglomerates were formed
		as the "New Rich."

	B.	Revolution and War, 1900-1918
		Sun Yat-sen and Yuan Shikai established the Guomindang in China, which
		was to force Qing to abdicate and form a democratic government.

	C.	Chinese Warlords and the Guomindang, 1919-1929
		After Sun's death, Chiang Kai-shek took over and established a corrupt
		military dictatorship.

V.	The New Middle East
	The Middle East was set up as mandates of the victorious nations, but
	Turkish people rebelled and restored a nation of their own. Arabs and Jews
	were not so lucky, and they were effectively under protectorates of Great
	Britain.

	A.	The Mandate System
		The victors used a three-class mandate system to split the territories
		of Germany and the Ottoman Empire, with the Middle East being "Class
		A," meaning that they are effectively recognized as a protectorate.

	B.	The Rise of a Modern Turkey
		After a war with Greece, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk set up a secular
		republic and strongly encouraged people to adopt western life style.

	C.	Arab Lands and the Question of Palestine
		French and British mandates were set up in the Middle East, but
		British policies toward incoming Jews and Arabs angered everyone.

VI.	Society, Culture, and Technology in the Industrialized World
	Even during the war, technological advances were appreciated. Women had
	more rights after their participation in WWI.

	A.	Class and Gender
		In Europe the class distinction became less obvious. In many countries
		in Europe women were allowed to vote during 1910-1940.

	B.	Revolution in the Sciences
		Physicists like Max Planck and Albert Einstein undermined traditional
		Newtonian physics with a relative and quantum model. Similar
		progresses were made in social sciences with psychologists like
		Sigmund Freud.

	C.	New Technologies of Modernity
		Transportation, communication, sanitation, and entertainment all
		improved during the period of time after World War I.

	D.	Technology and the Environment
		Skyscrapers and automobile transformed urban landscape and suburbs
		were created in automobile cities like Los Ángeles.

Chapter29.tgnotes

Chapter 29: The Collapse of the Old Order
	The World War II was a war of modern technologies and a modern level of
	destruction, both physically and economically.

I.  The Stalin Revolution
	Joseph Stalin successfully industrialized the Soviet Union in a short
	period of time, albeit with terror.

	A.  Five-Year Plans
		Beginning in 1928, Statin started to carry out his Five-Year Plans in
		order to rapidly industrialize the Soviet Union.

	B.  Collectivization of Agriculture
		Stalin’s agrarian collectivization was met with the resistence of the
		*kulaks*, who were “liquidat[ed] as a class.” This led to the great
		famines of 1933-34.

	C.  Terror and Opportunities
		Stalin sent millions of people to *gulag* camps, where they worked or
		starved to death, but at the same time freeing up job positions for
		poorer people.

II.	The Depression
	The Great Depression affected almost every single country in the world,
	especially Germany, directly causing the rise of nationalism and WWII.

	A.	Economic Crisis
		On the “Black Thursday” the New York stock market crashed, bringing
		the entire American, and theirfore world, economy down for at least 3
		years. A protective tariff is raised and imitated by other nations.

	B.	Depression in Industrial Nations
		In the US and colonial empires, the government remained largely
		democratic, while other nations called for strong nationalist
		autarchies.

	C.	Depression in Nonindustrial Regions
		In parts of Asia and Africa that depended on exports, there was wide-
		spread depression as well, but southern Africa boomed with increased
		gold mining.

III.	The Rise of Fascism
	In Italy and Germany an extreme type of nationalism arised during the
	period of economic depression called fascism.

	A.	Mussolini’s Italy
		Benito Mussolini seized power of the Fascist Party of Italy and later
		the Italian state, at the same time decreased both the living
		standards and unemployment rate.

	B.	Hitler’s Germany
		A WWI veteran, Hitler’s radical ideas in *Mein Kampf* gained in
		popularity after the Depression hit among the unemployed and factory
		owners alike. Once he gained power in 1933, he vowed to remove all
		Jews from Europe.

	C.	The Road to War, 1933-1939
		Since Italy invaded Ethiopia, Hitler started to conquer as well.
		The LoN was not effective because of democratic appeasement, and no
		action occurred until Germany signed an alliance with Italy and the
		Soviet Union and started invading Poland.

IV.	East Asia, 1931-1945
	Japan launched a massive attack against a strongly divided China.

	A.	The Manchurian Incident of 1931
		Chiang Kai-shek began building his army, while militant Japanese
		junior officers started invading Manchuria and called the
		“independent” state *Manchukuo*.

	B.	The Long March
		In Jiangxi the Chinese Communist Party and Mao Zedong set up soviets
		that in a way resembled Maxist-Leninism but appealed to the peasantry.
		Under Guomindang pressure the party was forced to march to Shaanxi,
		with 96% of her original force dead.

	C.	The Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1945
		China had a large but extremely unorganized army, and Japan easily
		took the eastern wealthy coastal cities. The Communists used the war
		as an opportunity to spread patriotism and gained support among the
		poor, while Guomindang focused on building an army against them.

V.	The Second World War
	Despite initial Axis advancement, the joining of the United States to the
	Allies were crucial in defeating the Axis powers.

	A.	The War of Movement
		The speed of troop deployment was crucial in the success of the
		*blitzkrieg* warfare employed by the Germans.

	B.	War in Europe and North Africa
		Germany gained all land in Europe between Spain and USSR until the
		Battle of Stalingrad, when the Soviets successfully counterattacked.
		In Africa Germany and Italy were defeated by Great Britain.

	C.	War in Asia and the Pacific
		Japan decided to wage war against the United States since the attack
		on Pearl Harbor, and was devastated by the US's advanced army, navy,
		and air force, especially in the Battle of Midway.

	D.	The End of War
		In Europe, Germany was unable to fend off attacks from both the Soviet
		Union and the Americans and British people from the D-day attack. In
		Asia, Japan suffered greatly from the two atomic bombs in Hiroshima
		and Nagasaki and surrendered soon after.

	E.	Collapse of the Guomindang and Communist Victory
		After the end of the war, Guomindang had a majority of territory,
		equipments, and international support, but its soldiers started to
		desert it because of the higher morale within the Communists, and the
		higher officials fled to Taiwan.

VI.	The Character of Warfare
	The WWII had more effects than mere fighting. New technologies spreaded,
	while some populations were targeted in the Holocaust. Women also enjoyed
	a higher level of participation in society in the Allied forces, including
	Communist China.

	A.	The Science and Technology of War
		During the war, submarines, cryptography, warplanes, and subatomic
		science were all improved drasticly.

	B.	Bombing Raids
		The Allies used bombing raids against Japan and Germany, and caused
		fire and mass destruction against women and children, and/or the
		antique in the city.

	C.	The Holocaust
		The Nazis systematically killed Jews, Catholics, homosexuals, among
		many other people in extermination camps like Auschwitz, all for
		“racial purity.”

	D.	The Home Front in Europe and Asia
		The USSR transported many workers from the west to the Ural Mountains
		and Siberia where they can safely build tanks and artillery. Women had
		a central role in the home front in the Allied states.

	E.	The Home Front in the United States
		Women and African Americans entered the industries as well. However,
		Japanese-Americans suffered racism and internment camps during the
		war.

	F.	War and the Environment
		Battles, air base constructions, mining, and timbering left scars in
		the land which take decades to restore.

Chapter30.tgnotes

Chapter 30: Striving for Independence: India, Africa, and Latin America, 1900–1949
	As nations struggle to break away from colonialism or neocolonialism, they
	often were (and in a way still are) challenged by diverse populations and
	the temptation of political violence.

I.	The Indian Independence Movement, 1905–1947
	Under Gandhi and his successors, the Hindus did set up a stable country;
	however the Muslims were discriminated against and were forced to create
	their own country.

	A.	The Land and the People
		The Indian land is extremely productive, but sometimes famines still
		striked. India is full of contradictory religions, languages, and
		social classes.

	B.	British Rule and Indian Nationalism
		The British encouraged discovery of raw materials and the construction
		of industrial products that benefited transportation of those.
		Educated Hindu and Muslim Indians opposed those actions and formed two
		separate efforts for independence.

	C.	Mahatma Gandhi and Militant Nonviolence
		Mahatma Gandhi was a talented speaker who was educated in London, but
		aligned himself with the peasantry. He strictly used nonviolence to
		protest, even though himself was arrested many times.

	D.	India Moves Toward Independence
		The British reluctantly gave more control to the India National
		Congress, and a new class of Indian entrepreneurs supported Jawaharlal
		Nehru, a successor to Gandhi.

	E.	Partition and Independence
		Britain eventually granted Indians independence, but at the same time
		divided India into a Hindu zone and a Muslim zone. Religious tension
		rose as well, and Gandhi was murdered by a militant Hindu.

II.	Sub-Saharan Africa, 1900–1945
	Sub-Saharan Africa underwent changes in its general social order as the
	Europeans basically enslaved the people there.

	A.	Colonial Africa: Economic and Social Changes
		Few Europeans actually lived in Africa, but they brought significant
		changes to the traditional social order as they forced people to work
		as slaves.

	B.	Religious and Political Changes
		Many Africans turned to Christianity or Islam to explain the rapid
		changes in their lives. The religions also set up schools, which
		increased literacy and helped organizations like the African National
		Congress form. Powerful signs of African nationalism also showed in
		Emperor Haile Selassie's recapture of his capical from the Italians.

III.	México, Argentina, and Brazil, 1900–1949
	The three Latin American nations all experienced difficulty in having a
	stable republic because of military aggression.

	A.	Background to Revolution, México in 1910
		General Porfirio Díaz allowed for extreme rich/poor division, after
		México's initial independence.

	B.	Revolution and Civil War in México
		After a chain of wars involving the Constitutionalists and peasant
		rebels led by Emiliano Zapata and Francisco Villa, Lázaro Cárdenas of
		the National Revolutionary Party eventually gained power and started
		to implement México's Constitution of 1917.

	C.	The Transformation of Argentina
		Argentina had fertile *pampas*, which were used to plant wheat and to
		raise cattle and sheep. The *oligarquía* allowed British to
		industrialize the nation, while at the same time British culture to
		diffuse in Argentina.

	D.	Brazil and Argentina, to 1929
		Brazil and Argentina shared a similar social structure. Hipólito
		Irigoyen of Argentina gained power as a reformist but turned
		conservative. European companies still dominated cutting-edge
		technology.

	E.	The Depression and the Vargas Regime in Brazil
		Getulio Vargas of Brazil contributed to her industrialization, but
		turned to fascism for more power, which infected all Latin American
		countries.

	F.	Argentina After 1930
		After several military coups, General José Uriburu seized power, and
		then was overthrown by Colonel Juan Perón. With his wife Eva, they
		imitated Vargas, and ultimately Hitler; after Eva's death the regime
		was overthrown.

Chapter31.tgnotes

Chapter 31:	The Cold War and Decolonization, 1945–1975
	After the WWII, the differing ideologies and alliances of the former
	Allies had a profound influence in global politics. At the same time, new
	independent nations were forced to choose a side.

I.	The Cold War
	Even with the United Nations and such, the Cold War polarized the world in
	a profound way, especially when both superpowers had nuclear weapons.
	Proxy wars caused misery to the people living in the places where wars
	were fought.

	A.	The United Nations
		In 1944, the Allied powers got together to discuss the plan for the
		United Nations, which now has a General Assembly and a Security
		Council. They were not extremely effective at dealing with issues
		regarding the Cold War (mainly in the Security Council) or
		decolonization (in the General Assembly).

	B.	Capitalism and Communism
		The IMF and the World Bank were created to help all nations to get
		back on their feet. In capitalist U.S. and western Europe, alliances
		such as the Marshall Plan, the OEEC, European Economic Community and
		the EU helped rebuilding; while in eastern Europe, despite rapid
		growth at first, the transition to production of consumer goods was
		not as successful.

	C.	West Versus East in Europe and Korea
		In Europe, the United States and the USSR kept wrestling over control
		of nations, but resulted in a stalemate. In Korea, U.S.'s support for
		the South Koreans was also countered by China and the USSR, resulting
		in status quo ante bellum.

	D.	United States Defeat in Vietnam
		Despite battlefield success, the U.S. is ultimately defeated because
		of her lack of support from either side of Vietnam. Antiwar efforts
		within eventually contributed to the end of U.S. participation, and
		soon the war.

	E.	The Race for Nuclear Supremacy
		The two superpowers both had the ability to destroy the world in less
		than two hours, and negotiation, although slow and arduous, eventually
		made steps toward limiting the use of nuclear weapons.

II.	Decolonization and State Building
	After WWII, former colonies had a new nationalist feeling, contributing to
	the decolonization of most nations. However, some did not take the
	transition well, falling into periods of economic depression or
	dictatorship.

	A.	New Nations in South and Southeast Asia
		In South Asia India and Pakistan failed to reunite. In Southeast Asia,
		some nations gained victory from the Japanese, like Indonesian
		dictator Achmad Sukarno.

	B.	The Struggle for Independence in Africa
		For the British colonies in Africa, the transition was relatively
		peaceful after the success of Ghana (to some degree) and Nigeria. For
		French colonies like Algeria the scene was more violent. And in
		Belgian Congo and South Africa the transition took years to correct.

	C.	The Quest for Economic Freedom in Latin America
		Much of Latin American land was under the control of large U.S.
		corporations, who had the power to influence the CIA for military
		actions against entire Latin American nations (like Guatemala). Cuba
		was successful in defending itself against the U.S. under the
		leadership of Fidel Castro.

III.	Beyond a Bipolar World
	Many other nations took advantage of both superpowers for their own
	benefit, but this also means that there are tensions other than the Cold
	War.

	A.	The Third World
		Many *nonaligned nations* took advantage of both superpowers to
		achieve their own political goals.

	B.	Japan and China
		Japan avoided any conflicts with the two major powers, with her new
		constitution. China had some ideological differences with the USSR,
		and despite Mao's failure in the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural
		Revolution, he did improve the diplomacy between China and the U.S.,
		gaining her the seat in the U.N.

	C.	The Middle East
		The tension between Palestinians and Israelis persisted ever since
		WWII, when Jewish refugees came to Palestine. Despite Israel's
		military success, the OPEC's oil embargo of 1973 had a devastating
		effect in developed countries who supported Israel.

	D.	The Emergence of Environmental Concerns
		From a student protest, the superpowers came to realize the importance
		of conserving natural resources such as petroleum.

Chapter32.tgnotes

Chapter 32:	The End of the Cold War and the Challenge of Economic Development and Immigration, 1975–2000
	The end of the cold war came after 1991, when the Soviet Union was
	officially dissolved, and that brought many more democratic countries in
	Eastern Europe. Other developing regions also embraced international
	trade. However, the environmental impact forces people to reconsider
	industrial practices.

I.	Postcolonial Crises and Asian Economic Expansion
	Many former colonies struggled to rejoin the world economy because of
	threats of communism and dictatorship.
	
	A.	Revolutions, Repression, and Democratic Reform in Latin America
		After 1970, many Latin American nations were polarized into communist
		regions and pro-US states, but the United States heavily influenced or
		even outrightly used military to avoid the spread of communism,
		causing dictatorships supported by the US.

	B.	Islamic Revolutions in Iran and Afghanistan In Iran
		After Shah Pahlavi’s abdication, the Iraq’s Saddam Husain fought
		against Iran, while being supported by the Soviet Union and later
		the United States. In Afghanistan the USSR encountered an unwinnable
		war similar to the Vietnam War the U.S. involved in.

	C.	Asian Transformation
		Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, and South Korea emerged to be
		leading industrial forces in the world (newly industrialized
		economies). In Japan keiretsu emerged.

	D.	China Rejoins the World Economy
		Under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, China allowed for limited
		capitalism, which pushed China to the seat of the second largest
		economy in the world, although undermined by the Tian’anmen Square
		protest of 1989.

II.	The End of the Bipolar world
	After 1990 and the fall of the Soviet Union, many more democracies formed,
	but at the same time Rwanda and Iraq initiated wars against others.

	A.	Crisis in the Soviet Union
		Leonid Brezhnev’s rule was unpopular, and was one of the reasons of
		the lack of morale among USSR citizens. Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to
		encourage more free speech with *glasnost* and *perestroika*.

	B.	The Collapse of the Socialist Bloc
		With more and more free speech and western ideas being allowed in the
		USSR, and labor organizations like Solidarity in Poland, communist
		governments in Eastern Europe all collapsed, bring about the
		dissolution of the USSR in 1991.

	C.	Progress and Conflict in Africa
		Most southern African nations gained democratic rule since 1991, but
		the genocide in Rwanda, Burundi, and the Congo undermined that.

	D.	The Persian Gulf War
		After Saddam Husein entered a war with Kuwait, the U.S. decided to
		join the war against its former ally, leading up to the second Gulf
		War.

III.	The Challenge of Population Growth
	Many developing regions are challenged by a growing population, while in
	developed countries like Sweden the aging of the population is a major
	issue.

	A.	Demographic Transition
		Many European nations have undergone the process of demographic
		transition, where their population stablizes after a period of rapid
		growth. It is also seen my some developing countries like China.

	B.	The Industrialized Regions
		Most industrialized regions now have a population growth rate lower
		than their death rates.

	C.	The Developing Regions
		Despite government interference, population in China and India has
		been rising slowly, while population growth in many African and Muslim
		countries are unchecked.

	D.	Old and Young Populations
		In a traditional Muslim country like Pakistan, the young population
		heavily overweights the older population, while the exact reverse is
		true in developed countries and more developed developing countries.

IV.	Unequal Development and the Movement of Peoples
	Because of growing inequality in societies, internal and global migration
	have taken place in developing countries, resulting in slums and
	resentment toward immigrants.

	A.	The Problem of Growing Inequality
		The world economy is more and more polarized, with rich European
		countries at the top like Luxembourg, Switzerland, and the U.S., and
		developing countries at the bottom, like most African countries,
		India, and China.

	B.	Internal Migration: the Growth of Cities
		For a family living in the countryside, moving to a city will almost
		always bring economic advancement, contributing to the growth of slums
		and a criminal population in many cities.

	C.	Global Migration
		Many immigrants from developing countries immigrated to developed
		countries, in many cases doing so is increasingly difficult.

V.	Technological and Environmental Change
	New technologies allowed for more efficient manufacturing processes, but
	the increase in industrialization resulted in increasing environmental
	stress in developing countries.

	A.	New Technologies and the World Economy
		Robotics and outsource made the transnational manufacturing
		corporations even more competitive than before.

	B.	Conserving and Sharing Resources
		Brazil and the former Soviet Union suffered the most from environment
		damages, but developing countries still consumed a much higher level
		of resources than they had.

	C.	Responding to Environmental Threats
		Increased awareness toward these environmental issues has resulted in
		the passing of many new laws in developed regions to limit
		environment footprint.

What kind of code is this?