Превод

gistfile1.txt

Emacs уџбеник. Услови копирања су на крају фајла.

Emacs команде обично користе CONTROL типку (некада означену као CTRL
или CTL) или META типку (некада означену као EDIT или ALT). У пракси
се користе следеће скраћенице за те типке:

 C-<chr> значи стисни CONTROL типку док куцаш симбол <chr>.
    Дакле, C-f означава: стисни CONTROL типку и укуцај f.

 M-<chr> значи стисни META или EDIT или ALT типку док куцаш <chr>.
    Ако немате META, EDIT или ALT типку, онда притисните и пустите ESC
    типку, онда укуцајте <chr>. <ESC> се користи за ESC типку.

Важна напомена: да завршите коришћење Emacs, укуцајте C-x C-c. (Два
симбола).
Да зауставите делимично унету команду, куцајте C-g.
Симболи ">>" на левој страни озанчавају да ви примените команду. На
пример:

<<Blank lines inserted around following line by help-with-tutorial>>
[Средина странице је остављена празна ради примера. Текст се наставља доле]
>> Сада укуцајте C-v (Покажи следећи екран) да би се приказао следећи
   екран. (пробајте сада, урадите то тако што стиснете и држите CONTROL
   симбол и укуцате v). Од сада, урадите ово поново када завршите са
   читањем екрана.

Обратите пажњу да постоји преклапање од две линије када се померате са
екрана на екран; то омогућава наставак тако да можете да продужите да
читате текст.

Прва ствар коју требате да знате је како да се крећете кроз текст. Већ
знате да се крећете један екран напред, са C-v. Да би се вратили један
екран назад, укуцајте M-v (стисните META симбол и укуцајте v, или укуцајте
<ESC>v ако немате META, EDIT, или ALT симбол).

>>  Покушајте да укуцате M-v и онда C-v, неколико пута.



* КРАТАК ПРЕГЛЕД КОМАНДИ
----------------------------

Следеће команде су корисне за прегледање екрана:

	C-v	Поркени се за један екран напред
	M-v	Поркени се за један екран назад
	C-l	Очисти екран и прикажи сав текст поново,
      померајући текст око курсора у центар екрана.
		  (То је CONTROL-L, а не CONTROL-1.)

>> Нађи курсор и запамтите који је текст око њега. Укуцајте C-l.
   Нађите курсор поново и приметите да је исти текст и даље око њега,
   али сада је у центру екрана.
   Ако притиснете C-l поново, помериће се на дно екрана.

Можете да користите PageUp и PageDn симболе да се померате за цео
екран, ако их ваш терминал поседује, али ефикасније је коришћење C-v и
M-v.

* ОСНОВНА КОНТРОЛА КУРСОРА
-------------------------------

Покретање од екрана до екрана је корисно, али како се покрећете на
одређено место у тексту на екрану?

Постоје више начина да ово урадите. Можете да користите типке са
стрелицама, али је ефикасније да задржите ваше руке на матичној
позицији на тастатури и да користите C-p, C-b, C-f, и C-n команде. Ови
знаци су једнаки четири типкама са стрелицама, овако:

			  Предходна линија, C-p
				  :
				  :
   Назад, C-b .... Тренутна позиција курсора .... Напред, C-f
				  :
				  :
			    Следећа линија, C-n


>> Померите курсор на линију у средини горњег дијаграма користећи C-n
   или C-p. Онда укуцајте C-l да би видели цео дијаграм у центру
   екрана.

Лако ће те запамтите ова слова по њиховим асоцијацијама на значења из
енглеског језика: P за previous (предходно), N за next (следеће), B за
backward (назад) и F for forward (напред). Користићете ове основне
команде за курсор стално.

>> Извршите C-n неколико пута да би спустили курсор на ову линију.

>> Уђите у линију са неколико C-f и онда идите ка горе са C-p.
   Видите шта C-p ради када је курсор у средини линије.

Свака линија текста се завршава са новим редом (Newline), који служи
да одвоји линију од следеће. (Обично, задња линија у фајлу ће имати
симбол за нови ред на крају, али Emacs то не захтева.)

>> Покушај C-b на самом почетку линије. Курсор треба да се помери у
   предходну линију. То је зато што се помера преко симбола за нови
   ред.

C-f може да пређе преко симбола за нови ред исто као и C-b.

>> Извршите још који C-b, да би добили осећај где се курсор налази.
   Онда урадите неколико C-f да би вратили курсор на крај линије.
   Онда урадите још један C-f да би померили курсор на следећу линију.

Када се померите изнад врха или дно екрана, текст ће се померити на
екрану. Ово се зове "скроловање". Оно омогућава да Emacs помери курсор
на одређено место у тексту али да га не помери ван екрана.

>> Покушајте да померите курсор на дно екрана користећи C-n и видите
   шта ће да се деси.

Ако је кретање за симбол сувише споро, можете да се крећете за
реч. M-f (META-f) се креће реч напред а M-b се креће реч назад.

>> Укуцајте неколико пута M-f и M-b.


Када се у сред речи, M-f се креће до краја речи. Када сте на празном
месту измећу речи, M-f се креће до краја следеће речи. M-b се понаша
исто тако, само у супротном смеру.

>> Укуцајте M-f и M-b неколико пута, додајте који покрет са C-f и C-b
   да би сте могли да видите акцију M-f и M-b са различитих позиција
   између и на речима.

Обратите пажњу на паралелу између C-f и C-b на једној страни и M-f и
M-b на другој. Врло често Meta симболи се користе за операције везане
за јединице дефинисане језиком (речи, реченице, параграфи), док
Control симболи раде на јединицама које су независне од тога што
обрађујете (симболи, линије и други).

Ова паралела се односи и на линије и реченице: C-a и C-e се крећу на
почетак и крај линије, а M-a и M-e на почетак и крај реченице.

>> Покушајте неколико C-a, и онда неколико C-e.
   Покушајте неколико M-a, и онда неколико M-e.

Видите како више C-a не раде ништа, али више M-a се крећу за једну
реченицу. И ако команде нису сасвим једнаке, обе се чине природним.

Локација курсура у тексту се назива тачка. Парафразирано, курсур
показује на екрану где се налази тачка у тексту.

Овде је списак једноставних операција за померање курсора, укључујући
и команде за покретање преко речи и реченица:

	C-f	Симбол напред
	C-b	Симбол назад

	M-f Реч напред
	M-b Реч назад

	C-n	Линију напред
	C-p	Линију назад

	C-a	На почетак линије
	C-e	На крај линије

	M-a	На почетак реченице
	M-e	На крај реченице

>> Пробајте сада све ове команде ради вежбе.
   Ово су најчешће коришћене команде.

Две друге важне команде за покретање курсора су M-< (META мање-од),
која ставља курсор на сам почетак текста, и M-> (META више-од), која
ставља курсор на сам крај текста.

На већини терминала, "<" се налази изнад запете, тако да морате да
користите Shift типку да би га укуцали. На овим терминалима морате да
користите Shift типку да би укуцали и M-<; без Shift типке, ви би
куцали M-запета.

>> Покушајте M-< сада, да би сте се померили на почетак текста.
   Онда користите C-v више пута да би се вратили назад овде.

>> Пробајте M-> сада, да би сте се померили на крај текста.
   Онда користите M-v више пута да би сте се вратили назад овде.

Ви такође можете да управљате курсором са стрелицама на тастатури ако
их има ваш терминал. Ми препоручујемо да научите C-b, C-f, C-n и C-p
из три разлога. Прво, они раде на свим терминалима. Друго, када
увежбате коришћење Emacs, видећете да је брже користити ове Control
скраћенице него користити стрелице на тастатури (зато што не померате
ваше прсте са матичне позиције за куцање). Треће, када једном створите
навику да користите ове скраћенице, ви ћете лакше научити сложеније
команде за управљање курсуром.

Већина Emacs команди прихвата бројни аргумент; за већину команди ово
служи да означи колико пута да се изврши команда. Начин на који се то
ради: укуцајте C-u и онда број пре него што укуцате команду. Ако имате
META (или EDIT или ALT) типку, постоји и другачији начин да унесте
бројни аргумент: укуцајте број док држите стиснутим META типку. Ми
препоручујемо C-u методу зато што ради на било којем терминалу. Бројни
аргумент се такође зове "префиксним аргументом", зато што укуцавате
аргумент пре него што укуцавате команду на који се односи.

На пример, C-u 8 C-f се креће напред осам симбола.

>> Пробајте да користите C-n или C-p са бројним аргументом, да би
   покренули курсор близу ове линије са само једном командом.

Већина команди користе бројни аргумент како би извршили команду за
толико пута, али неке команде га користе на други начин. Неколико
команди (али ниједна коју сте научили до сада) користи перфикс
аргумент као ознаку, без обзира на његову вредност, омогућава да
команда уради нешто друго.

C-v и M-v су још један изузетак. Када те команде добију аргумент, оне
померају екран за толико линија уместо толико екрана. На пример, C-u 8
C-v помера екран за 8 линија.

>> Покушајте да укуцате C-u 8 C-v сада.

То је требало да помери екран за 8 линија. Ако желите да се спустите
поново доле, можете да дате аргумент M-v команди.

Ако користите графичко окружење, попут X или MS-Windows, треба да се
види дуги правоугаоник који се зове клизач (scroll bar) на једној
страни Emacs прозора. (Има и других дугих правоугаоника на обе стране
Emacs. То су "ивице" и користе се да покажу настављање и друге
симболе. Клизач се налази само на једној крајњој страни.) Можете да се
померате кроз текст ако стиснете клизача мишом.

>> Покушајте да притисните средње дугме на врху клизача. То треба да
   вас помери на нову позицију у тексту зависно колико високо или
   ниско сте кликнули.

>> Покушајте да померате миша горе и доле, док држите средње дугме
   стиснуто. Видећете да се текст помера горе и доле како померате
   миша.

Ако ваш миш има точкић дугме, можете исто да га користите да би се
кретали по екрану.

* АКО EMACS БЛОКИРА
----------------------

Ако Emacs престане да одговара на ваше команде, можете да га
зауставите безопасно ако укуцате C-g. Можете да користите C-g да би
зауставили команду којој треба доста времена да се заврши.

Можете исто да користите C-g да би одстранили бројни аргумент на
почетку команде коју не желите да завршите.

>> Укуцајте C-u 100 да би дали бројни аргумент од 100, онда укуцајте
   C-g. Сада укуцајте C-f. Треба да се помери само за један симбол,
   зато што сте поништили аргумент са C-g.

Ако сте укуцали <ESC> случајно, можете такође да то поништите са C-g.


* ОНЕМОГУЋЕНЕ КОМАНДЕ
--------------------------

Неке Emacs команде су "онемогућене" тако да корисници почетници не
могу да их употребе случајно.

Ако укуцате једну од онемогућених команди, Emacs ће приказати поруку
која ће вас обавестити шта је команда, и питаће вас да ли желите да је
извршите.

Ако стварно желите да пробате команду, укуцајте <SPC> (простор) као
одговор на питање. Обично, ако не желите да извршите онемогућену
команду, одговорите на питање са типком "n".

>> Укуцајте C-x C-l (што је онемогућена команда),
   онда укуцајте "n" као одговор на питање.


* Прозори
----------

Emacs може да има више прозора, где сваки приказује свој
текст. Касније ће да објаснимо како да користите неколико
прозора. Сада желимо да вам објаснимо како да се уклоните више прозора
и да се вратите на основно, рад са само једаним прозором. То је овако
једноставно:

	C-x 1	Један прозор (затвори све остале прозоре).

То је CONTROL-x прослеђено са бројем 1. C-x 1 шири прозор који садржи
курсор да заузме цео екран. При том затвара све остале прозоре.

>> Померите курсор на ову линију и укуцај C-u 0 C-l.
>> Укуцакајте CONTROL-h k CONTROL-f.
   Видите како се прозор сужава, док се нови појављује
   да би приказао документацију о CONTROL-f команди.

>> Укуцајте C-x 1 и видећете како прозор са документацијом нестаје.

Ова команда је другачија од осталих које сте научили зато што се
састоји од два симбола. Почиње са знаком CONTROL-x. Постоји цела
серија команди које почињу са CONTROL-x; многе од њих раде на
прозорима, фајловима, баферима и сличним стварима. Ове команде су два,
три или четири симбола дуге.


* ПИСАЊЕ И БРИСАЊЕ
------------------------

Ако желите да пишете текст, само почните да пишете. Знаке које видите,
као А, 7, *, итд. Emacs прихвата као текст и уноси их одмах. Укуцајте
<Return> (типка за прелажење на следећи нови ред/Enter) да би унели
знак за нови ред.

Можете да избришите задњи знак који сте укуцали тако што стиснете
<Delback>. <Delback> је типка на тастатури -- иста коју обично
корстите, ван Emacs, да би избрисали задњи знак који сте укуцали. То
је обично већа типка мало изнад <Return> типке, и обично је означена
са "Delete", "Del" или "Backspace".

Ако је већа типка обележена "Backspace", онда њу користите за
<Delback>. Биће можда још једна типка обележена са "Delete" негде
другде, али то није <Delback>.

Обично, <Delback> брише знак одмах испред тренутне курсорове позиције.

>> Орадите то сада -- укуцајте неколико знакова, онда их избришите
   тако што куцате <Delback> неколико пута. Не брините о томе што
   измењујете овај фајл, нећете да измените главну копију. Ово је ваша
   лична копија.

Када је једна линија текста сувише дуга за линију на екрану, линија се
"настави" на другој линији екрана. Коса црта уназад ("\") (или, ако
користите графичко окружење, мала савијена стрелица) на левој ивици
(заправо, рубу "fringe") означава да се линија наставља.

>> Унесите текст док не дођете до десне ивице, и наставите да га уносите.
   Видећете знак за означавање настављање линије.

>> Користите <Delback> да би избрисали текст док линија поново не
   стане на само један ред на екрану. Знак за означавање наставка
   линије ће нестати.

Можете избрисати знак за нови ред као и сваки други знак. Брисање
знака за нови ред између две линије, спаја те линије у једну. Ако је
онда та линија сувише дуга да стане на дужину екрана, биће приказана
са ознаком за настављање линије.

>> Вратите курсор на почетак линије и укуцајте <Delback>. То ће
   спојити ту линију са предходном.

>> Укуцајте <Return> да би поново унели знак за нови ред који сте
   избрисали.

Сетите се да већина Emacs команди могу да добију ознаку колико пута да
се понове; то укључује знаке за текст. Понављајући уношење текст знака
више пута.

>>  Покушајте то сада -- укуцајте C-u 8 * да би унели ********.

Научили сте основне начине да укуцате нешто у Emacs и да исправљате
грешке. Можете да бришете за реч и за линију. Ево прегледа о
операцијама за брисање:

	<Delback>    избришите знак испред самог курсора
	C-d   	     избришите знак иза самог курсора

	M-<Delback>  убите реч испред самог курсора
	M-d	     убите реч иза самог курсора

	C-k	     убите од позиције курсора до краја линије
	M-k	     убите до краја тренутне реченице

Приметите да <Delback> и C-d наспрам M-<Delback> и M-d настављају
паралелу која је започета са C-f и M-f (ма да, <Delback> није знак за
контролу, али не бринимо о томе). C-k и M-k су сличне као C-e и M-e, у
смислу да су линије повезане са реченицама.

Можете исто да убијете било који део текста са сличном методом. Идите
до краја једног дела текста и укуцајте C-@ или C-<SPC> (било
који). (<SPC> је ознака за поствљање простора.) Померите се сада неког
другог дела текста, и укуцајте C-w. То убија сав текст између те две
позиције.

>> Померите курсор до М на почетку предходног параграфа.
>> Укуцајте C-<SPC>. Emacs треба да прикаже поруку "Mark set"
   на дну екрана.
>> Померите курсор до д, у дрој линији у параграфу.
>> Укуцајте C-w. То ће убити текст од М све до пред д.

Разлика између "убијања" и "брисања" је да "убијен" текст може да се
поново убаци (на било којој позицији), док "избрисане" ствари не могу
да се убаце на исти начин (можете ипак да опозовете брисање -- видите
доле). Убацивање текста који је убијен се зове трзање
("yanking"). Обично, команде које могу да уклоне доста текста, убијају
текст (намештене су тако да можете да трзнете текст). <Delback> и C-d
бришу у обичном случају. Када им дате аргумент, онда оне убијају.

>> Померите курсор на почетак линије која није празна.
   Онда укуцајте C-k да би убили текст на тој линији.
>> Укуцајте C-k по други пут. Видећете да убија знак за нови ред који
   следи ту линију.

Note that a single C-k kills the contents of the line, and a second
C-k kills the line itself, and makes all the other lines move up.  C-k
treats a numeric argument specially: it kills that many lines AND
their contents.  This is not mere repetition.  C-u 2 C-k kills two
lines and their newlines; typing C-k twice would not do that.

Bringing back killed text is called "yanking".  (Think of it as
yanking back, or pulling back, some text that was taken away.)  You
can yank the killed text either at the same place where it was killed,
or at some other place in the text you are editing, or even in a
different file.  You can yank the same text several times; that makes
multiple copies of it.  Some other editors call killing and yanking
"cutting" and "pasting" (see the Glossary in the Emacs manual).

The command for yanking is C-y.  It reinserts the last killed text,
at the current cursor position.

>> Try it; type C-y to yank the text back.

If you do several C-k's in a row, all of the killed text is saved
together, so that one C-y will yank all of the lines at once.

>> Do this now, type C-k several times.

Now to retrieve that killed text:

>> Type C-y.  Then move the cursor down a few lines and type C-y
   again.  You now see how to copy some text.

What do you do if you have some text you want to yank back, and then
you kill something else?  C-y would yank the more recent kill.  But
the previous text is not lost.  You can get back to it using the M-y
command.  After you have done C-y to get the most recent kill, typing
M-y replaces that yanked text with the previous kill.  Typing M-y
again and again brings in earlier and earlier kills.  When you have
reached the text you are looking for, you do not have to do anything to
keep it.  Just go on with your editing, leaving the yanked text where
it is.

If you M-y enough times, you come back to the starting point (the most
recent kill).

>> Kill a line, move around, kill another line.
   Then do C-y to get back the second killed line.
   Then do M-y and it will be replaced by the first killed line.
   Do more M-y's and see what you get.  Keep doing them until
   the second kill line comes back, and then a few more.
   If you like, you can try giving M-y positive and negative
   arguments.


* UNDO
------

If you make a change to the text, and then decide that it was a
mistake, you can undo the change with the undo command, C-x u.

Normally, C-x u undoes the changes made by one command; if you repeat
the C-x u several times in a row, each repetition undoes one
additional command.

But there are two exceptions: commands that do not change the text do
not count (this includes cursor motion commands and scrolling
commands), and self-inserting characters are usually handled in groups
of up to 20.  (This is to reduce the number of C-x u's you have to
type to undo insertion of text.)

>> Kill this line with C-k, then type C-x u and it should reappear.

C-_ is an alternative undo command; it works just the same as C-x u,
but it is easier to type several times in a row.  The disadvantage of
C-_ is that on some keyboards it is not obvious how to type it.  That
is why we provide C-x u as well.  On some terminals, you can type C-_
by typing / while holding down CONTROL.

A numeric argument to C-_ or C-x u acts as a repeat count.

You can undo deletion of text just as you can undo killing of text.
The distinction between killing something and deleting it affects
whether you can yank it with C-y; it makes no difference for undo.


* FILES
-------

In order to make the text you edit permanent, you must put it in a
file.  Otherwise, it will go away when your invocation of Emacs goes
away.  In order to put your text in a file, you must "find" the file
before you enter the text.  (This is also called "visiting" the file.)

Finding a file means that you see the contents of the file within
Emacs.  In many ways, it is as if you were editing the file itself.
However, the changes you make using Emacs do not become permanent
until you "save" the file.  This is so you can avoid leaving a
half-changed file on the system when you do not want to.  Even when
you save, Emacs leaves the original file under a changed name in case
you later decide that your changes were a mistake.

If you look near the bottom of the screen you will see a line that
begins with dashes, and starts with "--:--- TUTORIAL" or something
like that.  This part of the screen normally shows the name of the
file that you are visiting.  Right now, you are visiting a file called
"TUTORIAL" which is your personal scratch copy of the Emacs tutorial.
When you find a file with Emacs, that file's name will appear in that
precise spot.

One special thing about the command for finding a file is that you
have to say what file name you want.  We say the command "reads an
argument from the terminal" (in this case, the argument is the name of
the file).  After you type the command

	C-x C-f   Find a file

Emacs asks you to type the file name.  The file name you type appears
on the bottom line of the screen.  The bottom line is called the
minibuffer when it is used for this sort of input.  You can use
ordinary Emacs editing commands to edit the file name.

While you are entering the file name (or any minibuffer input),
you can cancel the command with C-g.

>> Type C-x C-f, then type C-g.  This cancels the minibuffer,
   and also cancels the C-x C-f command that was using the
   minibuffer.  So you do not find any file.

When you have finished entering the file name, type <Return> to
terminate it.  The C-x C-f command goes to work, and finds the file
you chose.  The minibuffer disappears when the C-x C-f command is
finished.

In a little while the file contents appear on the screen, and you can
edit the contents.  When you wish to make your changes permanent,
type the command

	C-x C-s   Save the file

This copies the text within Emacs into the file.  The first time you
do this, Emacs renames the original file to a new name so that it is
not lost.  The new name is made by adding "~" to the end of the
original file's name.

When saving is finished, Emacs displays the name of the file written.
You should save fairly often, so that you will not lose very much
work if the system should crash (see the section "Auto Save" below).

>> Type C-x C-s, saving your copy of the tutorial.
   This should show "Wrote ...TUTORIAL" at the bottom of the screen.

You can find an existing file, to view it or edit it.  You can also
find a file which does not already exist.  This is the way to create a
file with Emacs: find the file, which will start out empty, and then
begin inserting the text for the file.  When you ask to "save" the
file, Emacs will really create the file with the text that you have
inserted.  From then on, you can consider yourself to be editing an
already existing file.


* BUFFERS
---------

If you find a second file with C-x C-f, the first file remains
inside Emacs.  You can switch back to it by finding it again with
C-x C-f.  This way you can get quite a number of files inside Emacs.

>> Create a file named "foo" by typing  C-x C-f foo <Return>.
   Then insert some text, edit it, and save "foo" by typing  C-x C-s.
   Finally, type C-x C-f TUTORIAL <Return>
   to come back to the tutorial.

Emacs stores each file's text inside an object called a "buffer".
Finding a file makes a new buffer inside Emacs.  To see a list of the
buffers that currently exist in your Emacs job, type

	C-x C-b   List buffers

>> Try C-x C-b now.

See how each buffer has a name, and it may also have a file name for
the file whose contents it holds.  ANY text you see in an Emacs window
is always part of some buffer.

>> Type C-x 1 to get rid of the buffer list.

When you have several buffers, only one of them is "current" at any
time.  That buffer is the one you edit.  If you want to edit another
buffer, you need to "switch" to it.  If you want to switch to a buffer
that corresponds to a file, you can do it by visiting the file again
with C-x C-f.  But there is an easier way: use the C-x b command.
In that command, you have to type the buffer's name.

>> Type C-x b foo <Return> to go back to the buffer "foo" which holds
   the text of the file "foo".  Then type C-x b TUTORIAL <Return>
   to come back to this tutorial.

Most of the time, the buffer's name is the same as the file name
(without the file directory part).  However, this is not always true.
The buffer list you make with C-x C-b always shows you the name of
every buffer.

ANY text you see in an Emacs window is always part of some buffer.
Some buffers do not correspond to files.  For example, the buffer
named "*Buffer List*" does not have any file.  It is the buffer which
contains the buffer list that you made with C-x C-b.  The buffer named
"*Messages*" also does not correspond to any file; it contains the
messages that have appeared on the bottom line during your Emacs
session.

>> Type C-x b *Messages* <Return> to look at the buffer of messages.
   Then type C-x b TUTORIAL <Return> to come back to this tutorial.

If you make changes to the text of one file, then find another file,
this does not save the first file.  Its changes remain inside Emacs,
in that file's buffer.  The creation or editing of the second file's
buffer has no effect on the first file's buffer.  This is very useful,
but it also means that you need a convenient way to save the first
file's buffer.  It would be a nuisance to have to switch back to
it with C-x C-f in order to save it with C-x C-s.  So we have

	C-x s     Save some buffers

C-x s asks you about each buffer which contains changes that you have
not saved.  It asks you, for each such buffer, whether to save the
buffer.

>> Insert a line of text, then type C-x s.
   It should ask you whether to save the buffer named TUTORIAL.
   Answer yes to the question by typing "y".


* EXTENDING THE COMMAND SET
---------------------------

There are many, many more Emacs commands than could possibly be put
on all the control and meta characters.  Emacs gets around this with
the X (eXtend) command.  This comes in two flavors:

	C-x	Character eXtend.  Followed by one character.
	M-x	Named command eXtend.  Followed by a long name.

These are commands that are generally useful but are used less than the
commands you have already learned about.  You have already seen a few
of them: the file commands C-x C-f to Find and C-x C-s to Save, for
example.  Another example is the command to end the Emacs
session--this is the command C-x C-c.  (Do not worry about losing
changes you have made; C-x C-c offers to save each changed file before
it kills Emacs.)

If you are using a graphical display that supports multiple
applications in parallel, you don't need any special command to move
from Emacs to another application.  You can do this with the mouse or
with window manager commands.  However, if you're using a text
terminal which can only show one application at a time, you need to
"suspend" Emacs to move to any other program.

C-z is the command to exit Emacs *temporarily*--so that you can go
back to the same Emacs session afterward.  When Emacs is running on a
text terminal, C-z "suspends" Emacs; that is, it returns to the shell
but does not destroy the Emacs.  In the most common shells, you can
resume Emacs with the `fg' command or with `%emacs'.

The time to use C-x C-c is when you are about to log out.  It's also
the right thing to use to exit an Emacs invoked under mail handling
programs and other miscellaneous utilities, since they may not know
how to cope with suspension of Emacs.

There are many C-x commands.  Here is a list of the ones you have learned:

	C-x C-f		Find file
	C-x C-s		Save file
	C-x s		Save some buffers
	C-x C-b		List buffers
	C-x b		Switch buffer
	C-x C-c		Quit Emacs
	C-x 1		Delete all but one window
	C-x u		Undo

Named eXtended commands are commands which are used even less
frequently, or commands which are used only in certain modes.  An
example is the command replace-string, which globally replaces one
string with another.  When you type M-x, Emacs prompts you at the
bottom of the screen with M-x and you should type the name of the
command; in this case, "replace-string".  Just type "repl s<TAB>" and
Emacs will complete the name.  (<TAB> is the Tab key, usually found
above the CapsLock or Shift key near the left edge of the keyboard.)
End the command name with <Return>.

The replace-string command requires two arguments--the string to be
replaced, and the string to replace it with.  You must end each
argument with <Return>.

>> Move the cursor to the blank line two lines below this one.
   Then type M-x repl s<Return>changed<Return>altered<Return>.

   Notice how this line has changed: you've replaced
   the word c-h-a-n-g-e-d with "altered" wherever it occurred,
   after the initial position of the cursor.


* AUTO SAVE
-----------

When you have made changes in a file, but you have not saved them yet,
they could be lost if your computer crashes.  To protect you from
this, Emacs periodically writes an "auto save" file for each file that
you are editing.  The auto save file name has a # at the beginning and
the end; for example, if your file is named "hello.c", its auto save
file's name is "#hello.c#".  When you save the file in the normal way,
Emacs deletes its auto save file.

If the computer crashes, you can recover your auto-saved editing by
finding the file normally (the file you were editing, not the auto
save file) and then typing M-x recover-file <Return>.  When it asks for
confirmation, type yes<Return> to go ahead and recover the auto-save
data.


* ECHO AREA
-----------

If Emacs sees that you are typing multicharacter commands slowly, it
shows them to you at the bottom of the screen in an area called the
"echo area".  The echo area contains the bottom line of the screen.


* MODE LINE
-----------

The line immediately above the echo area is called the "mode line".
The mode line says something like this:

--:**-  TUTORIAL       63% L749    (Fundamental)-----------------------

This line gives useful information about the status of Emacs and
the text you are editing.

You already know what the filename means--it is the file you have
found.  NN% indicates your current position in the text; it means that
NN percent of the text is above the top of the screen.  If the top of
the file is on the screen, it will say "Top" instead of " 0%".  If the
bottom of the text is on the screen, it will say "Bot".  If you are
looking at text so small that all of it fits on the screen, the mode
line says "All".

The L and digits indicate position in another way: they give the
current line number of point.

The stars near the front mean that you have made changes to the text.
Right after you visit or save a file, that part of the mode line shows
no stars, just dashes.

The part of the mode line inside the parentheses is to tell you what
editing modes you are in.  The default mode is Fundamental which is
what you are using now.  It is an example of a "major mode".

Emacs has many different major modes.  Some of them are meant for
editing different languages and/or kinds of text, such as Lisp mode,
Text mode, etc.  At any time one and only one major mode is active,
and its name can always be found in the mode line just where
"Fundamental" is now.

Each major mode makes a few commands behave differently.  For example,
there are commands for creating comments in a program, and since each
programming language has a different idea of what a comment should
look like, each major mode has to insert comments differently.  Each
major mode is the name of an extended command, which is how you can
switch to that mode.  For example, M-x fundamental-mode is a command to
switch to Fundamental mode.

If you are going to be editing human-language text, such as this file, you
should probably use Text Mode.

>> Type M-x text-mode <Return>.

Don't worry, none of the Emacs commands you have learned changes in
any great way.  But you can observe that M-f and M-b now treat
apostrophes as part of words.  Previously, in Fundamental mode,
M-f and M-b treated apostrophes as word-separators.

Major modes usually make subtle changes like that one: most commands
do "the same job" in each major mode, but they work a little bit
differently.

To view documentation on your current major mode, type C-h m.

>> Use C-u C-v once or more to bring this line near the top of screen.
>> Type C-h m, to see how Text mode differs from Fundamental mode.
>> Type C-x 1 to remove the documentation from the screen.

Major modes are called major because there are also minor modes.
Minor modes are not alternatives to the major modes, just minor
modifications of them.  Each minor mode can be turned on or off by
itself, independent of all other minor modes, and independent of your
major mode.  So you can use no minor modes, or one minor mode, or any
combination of several minor modes.

One minor mode which is very useful, especially for editing
human-language text, is Auto Fill mode.  When this mode is on, Emacs
breaks the line in between words automatically whenever you insert
text and make a line that is too wide.

You can turn Auto Fill mode on by doing M-x auto-fill-mode <Return>.
When the mode is on, you can turn it off again by doing
M-x auto-fill-mode <Return>.  If the mode is off, this command turns
it on, and if the mode is on, this command turns it off.  We say that
the command "toggles the mode".

>> Type M-x auto-fill-mode <Return> now.  Then insert a line of "asdf "
   over again until you see it divide into two lines.  You must put in
   spaces between them because Auto Fill breaks lines only at spaces.

The margin is usually set at 70 characters, but you can change it
with the C-x f command.  You should give the margin setting you want
as a numeric argument.

>> Type C-x f with an argument of 20.  (C-u 2 0 C-x f).
   Then type in some text and see Emacs fill lines of 20
   characters with it.  Then set the margin back to 70 using
   C-x f again.

If you make changes in the middle of a paragraph, Auto Fill mode
does not re-fill it for you.
To re-fill the paragraph, type M-q (META-q) with the cursor inside
that paragraph.

>> Move the cursor into the previous paragraph and type M-q.


* SEARCHING
-----------

Emacs can do searches for strings (these are groups of contiguous
characters or words) either forward through the text or backward
through it.  Searching for a string is a cursor motion command;
it moves the cursor to the next place where that string appears.

The Emacs search command is "incremental".  This means that the
search happens while you type in the string to search for.

The command to initiate a search is C-s for forward search, and C-r
for reverse search.  BUT WAIT!  Don't try them now.

When you type C-s you'll notice that the string "I-search" appears as
a prompt in the echo area.  This tells you that Emacs is in what is
called an incremental search waiting for you to type the thing that
you want to search for.  <Return> terminates a search.

>> Now type C-s to start a search.  SLOWLY, one letter at a time,
   type the word 'cursor', pausing after you type each
   character to notice what happens to the cursor.
   Now you have searched for "cursor", once.
>> Type C-s again, to search for the next occurrence of "cursor".
>> Now type <Delback> four times and see how the cursor moves.
>> Type <Return> to terminate the search.

Did you see what happened?  Emacs, in an incremental search, tries to
go to the occurrence of the string that you've typed out so far.  To
go to the next occurrence of 'cursor' just type C-s again.  If no such
occurrence exists, Emacs beeps and tells you the search is currently
"failing".  C-g would also terminate the search.

(Note that on some systems, typing C-s will freeze the screen and you
will see no further output from Emacs.  This indicates that an
operating system "feature" called "flow control" is intercepting the
C-s and not letting it get through to Emacs.  To unfreeze the screen,
type C-q.)

If you are in the middle of an incremental search and type <Delback>,
you'll notice that the last character in the search string is erased
and the search backs up to the last place of the search.  For
instance, suppose you have typed "c", to search for the first
occurrence of "c".  Now if you type "u", the cursor will move
to the first occurrence of "cu".  Now type <Delback>.  This erases
the "u" from the search string, and the cursor moves back to
the first occurrence of "c".

If you are in the middle of a search and type a control or meta
character (with a few exceptions--characters that are special in
a search, such as C-s and C-r), the search is terminated.

The C-s starts a search that looks for any occurrence of the search
string AFTER the current cursor position.  If you want to search for
something earlier in the text, type C-r instead.  Everything that we
have said about C-s also applies to C-r, except that the direction of
the search is reversed.


* MULTIPLE WINDOWS
------------------

One of the nice features of Emacs is that you can display more than one
window on the screen at the same time.  (Note that Emacs uses the term
"frames"--described in the next section--for what some other
applications call "windows".  The Emacs manual contains a Glossary of
Emacs terms.)

>> Move the cursor to this line and type C-u 0 C-l (that's CONTROL-L, not
   CONTROL-1).

>> Now type C-x 2 which splits the screen into two windows.
   Both windows display this tutorial.  The cursor stays in the top window.

>> Type C-M-v to scroll the bottom window.
   (If you do not have a real META key, type <ESC> C-v.)

>> Type C-x o ("o" for "other") to move the cursor to the bottom window.
>> Use C-v and M-v in the bottom window to scroll it.
   Keep reading these directions in the top window.

>> Type C-x o again to move the cursor back to the top window.
   The cursor in the top window is just where it was before.

You can keep using C-x o to switch between the windows.  Each
window has its own cursor position, but only one window actually
shows the cursor.  All the ordinary editing commands apply to the
window that the cursor is in.  We call this the "selected window".

The command C-M-v is very useful when you are editing text in one
window and using the other window just for reference.  You can keep
the cursor always in the window where you are editing, and advance
through the other window sequentially with C-M-v.

C-M-v is an example of a CONTROL-META character.  If you have a real
META key, you can type C-M-v by holding down both CONTROL and META while
typing v.  It does not matter whether CONTROL or META "comes first,"
because both of these keys act by modifying the characters you type.

If you do not have a real META key, and you use <ESC> instead, the
order does matter: you must type <ESC> followed by CONTROL-v, because
CONTROL-<ESC> v will not work.  This is because <ESC> is a character
in its own right, not a modifier key.

>> Type C-x 1 (in the top window) to get rid of the bottom window.

(If you had typed C-x 1 in the bottom window, that would get rid
of the top one.  Think of this command as "Keep just one
window--the window I am already in.")

You do not have to display the same buffer in both windows.  If you
use C-x C-f to find a file in one window, the other window does not
change.  You can find a file in each window independently.

Here is another way to use two windows to display two different things:

>> Type C-x 4 C-f followed by the name of one of your files.
   End with <Return>.  See the specified file appear in the bottom
   window.  The cursor goes there, too.

>> Type C-x o to go back to the top window, and C-x 1 to delete
   the bottom window.


* MULTIPLE FRAMES
------------------

Emacs can also create multiple "frames" (unless you are using a
text-only terminal).  A frame is what we call one collection of
windows, together with its menus, scroll bars, echo area, etc.
(Some other applications call a frame a "window".)

>> Type M-x make-frame <Return>.
   See a new frame appear on your screen.

You can do everything you did in the original frame in the new frame.
There is nothing special about the first frame.

>> Type M-x delete-frame <Return>.
   This removes the selected frame.

You can also remove a frame by using the normal method provided by
your window manager (often clicking a button with an "X" at a top
corner of the frame).  No information is lost when you close a frame
(or window), it is simply removed from sight and can be restored later.


* RECURSIVE EDITING LEVELS
--------------------------

Sometimes you will get into what is called a "recursive editing
level".  This is indicated by square brackets in the mode line,
surrounding the parentheses around the major mode name.  For
example, you might see [(Fundamental)] instead of (Fundamental).

To get out of the recursive editing level, type <ESC> <ESC> <ESC>.
That is an all-purpose "get out" command.  You can also use it for
eliminating extra windows, and getting out of the minibuffer.

>> Type M-x to get into a minibuffer; then type <ESC> <ESC> <ESC> to
   get out.

You cannot use C-g to get out of a recursive editing level.  This is
because C-g is used for canceling commands and arguments WITHIN the
recursive editing level.


* GETTING MORE HELP
-------------------

In this tutorial we have tried to supply just enough information to
get you started using Emacs.  There is so much available in Emacs that
it would be impossible to explain it all here.  However, you may want
to learn more about Emacs since it has many other useful features.
Emacs provides commands for reading documentation about Emacs
commands.  These "help" commands all start with the character
CONTROL-h, which is called "the Help character".

To use the Help features, type the C-h character, and then a
character saying what kind of help you want.  If you are REALLY lost,
type C-h ? and Emacs will tell you what kinds of help it can give.
If you have typed C-h and decide you do not want any help, just
type C-g to cancel it.

(If C-h does not display a message about help at the bottom of the
screen, try typing the F1 key or M-x help <Return> instead.)

The most basic HELP feature is C-h c.  Type C-h, the character c, and
a command character or sequence; then Emacs displays a very brief
description of the command.

>> Type C-h c C-p.

The message should be something like this:

	C-p runs the command previous-line

This tells you the "name of the function".  Since function names
are chosen to indicate what the command does, they can serve as
very brief documentation--sufficient to remind you of commands you
have already learned.

Multi-character commands such as C-x C-s and (if you have no META or
EDIT or ALT key) <ESC>v are also allowed after C-h c.

To get more information about a command, use C-h k instead of C-h c.

>> Type C-h k C-p.

This displays the documentation of the function, as well as its
name, in an Emacs window.  When you are finished reading the
output, type C-x 1 to get rid of the help text.  You do not have
to do this right away.  You can do some editing while referring
to the help text, and then type C-x 1.

Here are some other useful C-h options:

   C-h f	Describe a function.  You type in the name of the
		function.

>> Try typing C-h f previous-line <Return>.
   This displays all the information Emacs has about the
   function which implements the C-p command.

A similar command C-h v displays the documentation of variables,
including those whose values you can set to customize Emacs behavior.
You need to type in the name of the variable when Emacs prompts for it.

   C-h a	Command Apropos.  Type in a keyword and Emacs will list
		all the commands whose names contain that keyword.
		These commands can all be invoked with META-x.
		For some commands, Command Apropos will also list a one
		or two character sequence which runs the same command.

>> Type C-h a file <Return>.

This displays in another window a list of all M-x commands with "file"
in their names.  You will see character-commands like C-x C-f listed
beside the corresponding command names such as find-file.

>> Type C-M-v to scroll the help window.  Do this a few times.

>> Type C-x 1 to delete the help window.

   C-h i	Read included Manuals (a.k.a. Info).  This command puts
		you into a special buffer called `*info*' where you
		can read manuals for the packages installed on your system.
		Type m emacs <Return> to read the Emacs manual.
		If you have never before used Info, type ? and Emacs
		will take you on a guided tour of Info mode facilities.
		Once you are through with this tutorial, you should
		consult the Emacs Info manual as your primary documentation.


* MORE FEATURES
---------------

You can learn more about Emacs by reading its manual, either as a
printed book, or inside Emacs (use the Help menu or type C-h r).
Two features that you may like especially are completion, which saves
typing, and dired, which simplifies file handling.

Completion is a way to avoid unnecessary typing.  For instance, if you
want to switch to the *Messages* buffer, you can type C-x b *M<Tab>
and Emacs will fill in the rest of the buffer name as far as it can
determine from what you have already typed.  Completion also works for
command names and file names.  Completion is described in the Emacs
manual in the node called "Completion".

Dired enables you to list files in a directory (and optionally its
subdirectories), move around that list, visit, rename, delete and
otherwise operate on the files.  Dired is described in the Emacs
manual in the node called "Dired".

The manual also describes many other Emacs features.


* CONCLUSION
------------

To exit Emacs use C-x C-c.

This tutorial is meant to be understandable to all new users, so if
you found something unclear, don't sit and blame yourself - complain!


* COPYING
---------

This tutorial descends from a long line of Emacs tutorials
starting with the one written by Stuart Cracraft for the original Emacs.

This version of the tutorial is a part of GNU Emacs.  It is copyrighted
and comes with permission to distribute copies on certain conditions:

  Copyright (C) 1985, 1996, 1998, 2001-2011 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

  This file is part of GNU Emacs.

  GNU Emacs is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
  it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
  the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
  (at your option) any later version.

  GNU Emacs is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
  but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
  MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
  GNU General Public License for more details.

  You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
  along with GNU Emacs.  If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.

Please read the file COPYING and then do give copies of GNU Emacs to
your friends.  Help stamp out software obstructionism ("ownership") by
using, writing, and sharing free software!