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List of elements from the periodic table.
Raw
elements.json
[
{
"Number": 1,
"Type": "Nonmetal",
"Mass": 1.008,
"Name": "Hydrogen",
"Acronym": "H",
"Electrons": [
1
],
"Group": "1",
"Period": 1,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Gas",
"MeltingPoint": 13.99,
"BoilingPoint": 20.271,
"Orbitals": "1s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>1</sup>H",
"Mass": 1.008,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.9885,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>2</sup>H",
"Mass": 2.014,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.0115,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A colourless, odourless gas. It has the lowest density of all gases.",
"Uses": "<div>Some see hydrogen gas as the clean fuel of the future – generated from water and returning to water when it is oxidised. Hydrogen-powered fuel cells are increasingly being seen as ‘pollution-free’ sources of energy and are now being used in some buses and cars.</div><div><br/></div><div>Hydrogen also has many other uses. In the chemical industry it is used to make ammonia for agricultural fertiliser (the Haber process) and cyclohexane and methanol, which are intermediates in the production of plastics and pharmaceuticals. It is also used to remove sulfur from fuels during the oil-refining process. Large quantities of hydrogen are used to hydrogenate oils to form fats, for example to make margarine. </div><div><br/></div><div>In the glass industry hydrogen is used as a protective atmosphere for making flat glass sheets. In the electronics industry it is used as a flushing gas during the manufacture of silicon chips. </div><div><br/></div><div>The low density of hydrogen made it a natural choice for one of its first practical uses – filling balloons and airships. However, it reacts vigorously with oxygen (to form water) and its future in filling airships ended when the Hindenburg airship caught fire. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.1,
"CovalentRadius": 0.32,
"ElectronAffinity": 72.769,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.2,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1312.05
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>1</sup>H",
"Mass": 1.008,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.9885,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>2</sup>H",
"Mass": 2.014,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.0115,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>3</sup>H",
"Mass": 3.016,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"12.31 y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Henry Cavendish",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'hydro' and 'genes' meaning water forming.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1766"
},
{
"Number": 2,
"Type": "Noble",
"Mass": 4.0026,
"Name": "Helium",
"Acronym": "He",
"Electrons": [
2
],
"Group": "18",
"Period": 1,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Gas",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": 4.222,
"Orbitals": "1s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>4</sup>He",
"Mass": 4.003,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.9999,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A colourless, odourless gas that is totally unreactive. ",
"Uses": "<div>Helium is used as a cooling medium for the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), and the superconducting magnets in MRI scanners and NMR spectrometers. It is also used to keep satellite instruments cool and was used to cool the liquid oxygen and hydrogen that powered the Apollo space vehicles.</div><div><br/></div><div>Because of its low density helium is often used to fill decorative balloons, weather balloons and airships. Hydrogen was once used to fill balloons but it is dangerously reactive. </div><div><br/></div><div>Because it is very unreactive, helium is used to provide an inert protective atmosphere for making fibre optics and semiconductors, and for arc welding. Helium is also used to detect leaks, such as in car air-conditioning systems, and because it diffuses quickly it is used to inflate car airbags after impact. </div><div><br/></div><div>A mixture of 80% helium and 20% oxygen is used as an artificial atmosphere for deep-sea divers and others working under pressurised conditions. </div><div><br/></div><div>Helium-neon gas lasers are used to scan barcodes in supermarket checkouts. A new use for helium is a helium-ion microscope that gives better image resolution than a scanning electron microscope.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.4,
"CovalentRadius": 0.37,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
2372.322,
5250.516
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>3</sup>He",
"Mass": 3.016,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.000134,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>4</sup>He",
"Mass": 4.003,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.9999,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Sir William Ramsay in London, and independently by Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet in Uppsala, Sweden",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek, 'helios' meaning sun, as it was in the sun's corona that helium was first detected.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1895"
},
{
"Number": 3,
"Type": "Alkali",
"Mass": 6.94,
"Name": "Lithium",
"Acronym": "Li",
"Electrons": [
2,
1
],
"Group": "1",
"Period": 2,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 453.65,
"BoilingPoint": 1615,
"Orbitals": "[He] 2s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>7</sup>Li",
"Mass": 7.016,
"NaturalAbundance": 92.41,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery metal. It has the lowest density of all metals. It reacts vigorously with water.",
"Uses": "<div>The most important use of lithium is in rechargeable batteries for mobile phones, laptops, digital cameras and electric vehicles. Lithium is also used in some non-rechargeable batteries for things like heart pacemakers, toys and clocks.</div><div><br/></div><div>Lithium metal is made into alloys with aluminium and magnesium, improving their strength and making them lighter. A magnesium-lithium alloy is used for armour plating. Aluminium-lithium alloys are used in aircraft, bicycle frames and high-speed trains.</div><div><br/></div><div>Lithium oxide is used in special glasses and glass ceramics. Lithium chloride is one of the most hygroscopic materials known, and is used in air conditioning and industrial drying systems (as is lithium bromide). Lithium stearate is used as an all-purpose and high-temperature lubricant. Lithium carbonate is used in drugs to treat manic depression, although its action on the brain is still not fully understood. Lithium hydride is used as a means of storing hydrogen for use as a fuel.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.82,
"CovalentRadius": 1.3,
"ElectronAffinity": 59.633,
"ElectronNegativity": 0.98,
"IonisationEnergies": [
520.222,
7298.15,
11815.044
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>6</sup>Li",
"Mass": 6.015,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.59,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>7</sup>Li",
"Mass": 7.016,
"NaturalAbundance": 92.41,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Johan August Arfvedson",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'lithos' meaning stone.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1817"
},
{
"Number": 4,
"Type": "Alkaline",
"Mass": 9.0122,
"Name": "Beryllium",
"Acronym": "Be",
"Electrons": [
2,
2
],
"Group": "2",
"Period": 2,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1560,
"BoilingPoint": 2741,
"Orbitals": "[He] 2s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>9</sup>Be",
"Mass": 9.012,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": " Beryllium is a silvery-white metal. It is relatively soft and has a low density.",
"Uses": "<div>Beryllium is used in alloys with copper or nickel to make gyroscopes, springs, electrical contacts, spot-welding electrodes and non-sparking tools. Mixing beryllium with these metals increases their electrical and thermal conductivity. </div><div><br/></div><div>Other beryllium alloys are used as structural materials for high-speed aircraft, missiles, spacecraft and communication satellites. </div><div><br/></div><div>Beryllium is relatively transparent to X-rays so ultra-thin beryllium foil is finding use in X-ray lithography. Beryllium is also used in nuclear reactors as a reflector or moderator of neutrons. </div><div><br/></div><div>The oxide has a very high melting point making it useful in nuclear work as well as having ceramic applications.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.53,
"CovalentRadius": 0.99,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.57,
"IonisationEnergies": [
899.504,
1757.108,
14848.767,
21006.658
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>9</sup>Be",
"Mass": 9.012,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Nicholas Louis Vauquelin",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek name for beryl, 'beryllo'.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1797"
},
{
"Number": 5,
"Type": "Metalloid",
"Mass": 10.81,
"Name": "Boron",
"Acronym": "B",
"Electrons": [
2,
3
],
"Group": "13",
"Period": 2,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2350,
"BoilingPoint": 4273,
"Orbitals": "[He] 2s<sup>2</sup>2p<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>11</sup>B",
"Mass": 11.009,
"NaturalAbundance": 80.1,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Pure boron is a dark amorphous powder.",
"Uses": "<div>Amorphous boron is used as a rocket fuel igniter and in pyrotechnic flares. It gives the flares a distinctive green colour.</div><div><br/></div><div>The most important compounds of boron are boric (or boracic) acid, borax (sodium borate) and boric oxide. These can be found in eye drops, mild antiseptics, washing powders and tile glazes. Borax used to be used to make bleach and as a food preservative.</div><div><br/></div><div>Boric oxide is also commonly used in the manufacture of borosilicate glass (Pyrex). It makes the glass tough and heat resistant. Fibreglass textiles and insulation are made from borosilcate glass. </div><div><br/></div><div>Sodium octaborate is a flame retardant.</div><div><br/></div><div>The isotope boron-10 is good at absorbing neutrons. This means it can be used to regulate nuclear reactors. It also has a role in instruments used to detect neutrons.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.92,
"CovalentRadius": 0.84,
"ElectronAffinity": 26.989,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.04,
"IonisationEnergies": [
800.637,
2427.069,
3659.751,
25025.905,
32826.802
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>10</sup>B",
"Mass": 10.013,
"NaturalAbundance": 19.9,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>11</sup>B",
"Mass": 11.009,
"NaturalAbundance": 80.1,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": " Louis-Josef Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard in Paris, France, and Humphry Davy in London, UK",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Arabic 'buraq', which was the name for borax.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1808"
},
{
"Number": 6,
"Type": "Nonmetal",
"Mass": 12.011,
"Name": "Carbon",
"Acronym": "C",
"Electrons": [
2,
4
],
"Group": "14",
"Period": 2,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 4098,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[He] 2s<sup>2</sup>2p<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>12</sup>C",
"Mass": 12,
"NaturalAbundance": 98.93,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>13</sup>C",
"Mass": 13.003,
"NaturalAbundance": 1.07,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>14</sup>C",
"Mass": 14.003,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"5715 y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "<div>There are a number of pure forms of this element including graphite, diamond, fullerenes and graphene. </div><div><br/></div><div>Diamond is a colourless, transparent, crystalline solid and the hardest known material. Graphite is black and shiny but soft. The nano-forms, fullerenes and graphene, appear as black or dark brown, soot-like powders.</div>",
"Uses": "<div>Carbon is unique among the elements in its ability to form strongly bonded chains, sealed off by hydrogen atoms. These hydrocarbons, extracted naturally as fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), are mostly used as fuels. A small but important fraction is used as a feedstock for the petrochemical industries producing polymers, fibres, paints, solvents and plastics etc. </div><div><br/></div><div>Impure carbon in the form of charcoal (from wood) and coke (from coal) is used in metal smelting. It is particularly important in the iron and steel industries. </div><div><br/></div><div>Graphite is used in pencils, to make brushes in electric motors and in furnace linings. Activated charcoal is used for purification and filtration. It is found in respirators and kitchen extractor hoods. </div><div><br/></div><div>Carbon fibre is finding many uses as a very strong, yet lightweight, material. It is currently used in tennis rackets, skis, fishing rods, rockets and aeroplanes.</div><div><br/></div><div>Industrial diamonds are used for cutting rocks and drilling. Diamond films are used to protect surfaces such as razor blades.</div><div><br/></div><div>The more recent discovery of carbon nanotubes, other fullerenes and atom-thin sheets of graphene has revolutionised hardware developments in the electronics industry and in nanotechnology generally.</div><div><br/></div><div>150 years ago the natural concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere was 280 ppm. In 2013, as a result of combusting fossil fuels with oxygen, there was 390 ppm. Atmospheric carbon dioxide allows visible light in but prevents some infrared escaping (the natural greenhouse effect). This keeps the Earth warm enough to sustain life. However, an enhanced greenhouse effect is underway, due to a human-induced rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide. This is affecting living things as our climate changes.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.7,
"CovalentRadius": 0.75,
"ElectronAffinity": 121.776,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.55,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1086.454,
2352.631,
4620.471,
6222.716,
37830.648,
47277.174
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>12</sup>C",
"Mass": 12,
"NaturalAbundance": 98.93,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>13</sup>C",
"Mass": 13.003,
"NaturalAbundance": 1.07,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>14</sup>C",
"Mass": 14.003,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"5715 y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin ‘carbo’, charcoal",
"DiscoveredWhen": "Prehistoric"
},
{
"Number": 7,
"Type": "Nonmetal",
"Mass": 14.007,
"Name": "Nitrogen",
"Acronym": "N",
"Electrons": [
2,
5
],
"Group": "15",
"Period": 2,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Gas",
"MeltingPoint": 63.2,
"BoilingPoint": 77.355,
"Orbitals": "[He] 2s<sup>2</sup>2p<sup>3</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>14</sup>N",
"Mass": 14.003,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.636,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A colourless, odourless gas. ",
"Uses": "<div>Nitrogen is important to the chemical industry. It is used to make fertilisers, nitric acid, nylon, dyes and explosives. To make these products, nitrogen must first be reacted with hydrogen to produce ammonia. This is done by the Haber process. 150 million tonnes of ammonia are produced in this way every year. </div><div><br/></div><div>Nitrogen gas is also used to provide an unreactive atmosphere. It is used in this way to preserve foods, and in the electronics industry during the production of transistors and diodes. Large quantities of nitrogen are used in annealing stainless steel and other steel mill products. Annealing is a heat treatment that makes steel easier to work.</div><div><br/></div><div>Liquid nitrogen is often used as a refrigerant. It is used for storing sperm, eggs and other cells for medical research and reproductive technology. It is also used to rapidly freeze foods, helping them to maintain moisture, colour, flavour and texture. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.55,
"CovalentRadius": 0.71,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 3.04,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1402.328,
2856.092,
4578.156,
7475.057,
9444.969,
53266.835,
64360.16
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>14</sup>N",
"Mass": 14.003,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.636,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>15</sup>N",
"Mass": 15,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.364,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Daniel Rutherford",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'nitron' and 'genes' meaning nitre forming.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1772"
},
{
"Number": 8,
"Type": "Nonmetal",
"Mass": 15.999,
"Name": "Oxygen",
"Acronym": "O",
"Electrons": [
2,
6
],
"Group": "16",
"Period": 2,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Gas",
"MeltingPoint": 54.36,
"BoilingPoint": 90.188,
"Orbitals": "[He] 2s<sup>2</sup>2p<sup>4</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>16</sup>O",
"Mass": 15.995,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.757,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A colourless, odourless gas.",
"Uses": "<div>The greatest commercial use of oxygen gas is in the steel industry. Large quantities are also used in the manufacture of a wide range of chemicals including nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. It is also used to make epoxyethane (ethylene oxide), used as antifreeze and to make polyester, and chloroethene, the precursor to PVC. </div><div><br/></div><div>Oxygen gas is used for oxy-acetylene welding and cutting of metals. A growing use is in the treatment of sewage and of effluent from industry.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.52,
"CovalentRadius": 0.64,
"ElectronAffinity": 140.976,
"ElectronNegativity": 3.44,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1313.942,
3388.671,
5300.47,
7469.271,
10989.584,
13326.526,
71330.65,
84078.3
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>16</sup>O",
"Mass": 15.995,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.757,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>17</sup>O",
"Mass": 16.999,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.038,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>18</sup>O",
"Mass": 17.999,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.205,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire, England and independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in Uppsala, Sweden",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from the Greek 'oxy genes', meaning acid forming.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1774"
},
{
"Number": 9,
"Type": "Nonmetal",
"Mass": 18.998,
"Name": "Fluorine",
"Acronym": "F",
"Electrons": [
2,
7
],
"Group": "17",
"Period": 2,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Gas",
"MeltingPoint": 53.48,
"BoilingPoint": 85.04,
"Orbitals": "[He] 2s<sup>2</sup>2p<sup>5</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>19</sup>F",
"Mass": 18.998,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A very pale yellow-green, dangerously reactive gas. It is the most reactive of all the elements and quickly attacks all metals. Steel wool bursts into flames when exposed to fluorine.",
"Uses": "<div>There was no commercial production of fluorine until the Second World War, when the development of the atom bomb, and other nuclear energy projects, made it necessary to produce large quantities. Before this, fluorine salts, known as fluorides, were for a long time used in welding and for frosting glass. </div><div><br/></div><div>The element is used to make uranium hexafluoride, needed by the nuclear power industry to separate uranium isotopes. It is also used to make sulfur hexafluoride, the insulating gas for high-power electricity transformers. </div><div><br/></div><div>In fact, fluorine is used in many fluorochemicals, including solvents and high-temperature plastics, such as Teflon (poly(tetrafluoroethene), PTFE). Teflon is well known for its non-stick properties and is used in frying pans. It is also used for cable insulation, for plumber’s tape and as the basis of Gore-Tex® (used in waterproof shoes and clothing). </div><div><br/></div><div>Hydrofluoric acid is used for etching the glass of light bulbs and in similar applications. </div><div><br/></div><div>CFCs (chloro-fluoro-carbons) were once used as aerosol propellants, refrigerants and for ‘blowing’ expanded polystyrene. However, their inertness meant that, once in the atmosphere, they diffused into the stratosphere and destroyed the Earth’s ozone layer. They are now banned.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.47,
"CovalentRadius": 0.6,
"ElectronAffinity": 328.165,
"ElectronNegativity": 3.98,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1681.045,
3374.17,
6050.441,
8407.713,
11022.755,
15164.128,
17867.734,
92038.447
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>19</sup>F",
"Mass": 18.998,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Henri Moissan",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived form the Latin 'fluere', meaning to flow",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1886"
},
{
"Number": 10,
"Type": "Noble",
"Mass": 20.18,
"Name": "Neon",
"Acronym": "Ne",
"Electrons": [
2,
8
],
"Group": "18",
"Period": 2,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Gas",
"MeltingPoint": 24.56,
"BoilingPoint": 27.104,
"Orbitals": "[He] 2s<sup>2</sup>2p<sup>6</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>20</sup>Ne",
"Mass": 19.992,
"NaturalAbundance": 90.48,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A colourless, odourless gas. Neon will not react with any other substance.",
"Uses": "<div>The largest use of neon is in making the ubiquitous ‘neon signs’ for advertising. In a vacuum discharge tube neon glows a reddish orange colour. Only the red signs actually contain pure neon. Others contain different gases to give different colours.</div><div><br/></div><div>Neon is also used to make high-voltage indicators and switching gear, lightning arresters, diving equipment and lasers. </div><div><br/></div><div>Liquid neon is an important cryogenic refrigerant. It has over 40 times more refrigerating capacity per unit volume than liquid helium, and more than 3 times that of liquid hydrogen.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.54,
"CovalentRadius": 0.62,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
2080.662,
3952.325,
6121.99,
9370.66,
12177.41,
15237.93,
19999.086,
23069.539
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>20</sup>Ne",
"Mass": 19.992,
"NaturalAbundance": 90.48,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>21</sup>Ne",
"Mass": 20.994,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.27,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>22</sup>Ne",
"Mass": 21.991,
"NaturalAbundance": 9.25,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Sir William Ramsay and Morris Travers",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from the Greek 'neos', meaning new.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1898"
},
{
"Number": 11,
"Type": "Alkali",
"Mass": 22.99,
"Name": "Sodium",
"Acronym": "Na",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
1
],
"Group": "1",
"Period": 3,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 370.944,
"BoilingPoint": 1156.09,
"Orbitals": "[Ne] 3s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>23</sup>Na",
"Mass": 22.99,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Sodium is a soft metal that tarnishes within seconds of being exposed to the air. It also reacts vigorously with water.",
"Uses": "<div>Sodium is used as a heat exchanger in some nuclear reactors, and as a reagent in the chemicals industry. But sodium salts have more uses than the metal itself.</div><div><br/></div><div>The most common compound of sodium is sodium chloride (common salt). It is added to food and used to de-ice roads in winter. It is also used as a feedstock for the chemical industry.</div><div><br/></div><div>Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is also a useful sodium salt. It is used as a water softener.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.27,
"CovalentRadius": 1.6,
"ElectronAffinity": 52.867,
"ElectronNegativity": 0.93,
"IonisationEnergies": [
495.845,
4562.444,
6910.28,
9543.36,
13353.6,
16612.85,
20117.2,
25496.25
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>23</sup>Na",
"Mass": 22.99,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Humphry Davy",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the English word 'soda'.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1807"
},
{
"Number": 12,
"Type": "Alkaline",
"Mass": 24.305,
"Name": "Magnesium",
"Acronym": "Mg",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
2
],
"Group": "2",
"Period": 3,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 923,
"BoilingPoint": 1363,
"Orbitals": "[Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>24</sup>Mg",
"Mass": 23.985,
"NaturalAbundance": 78.99,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery-white metal that ignites easily in air and burns with a bright light.",
"Uses": "<div>Magnesium is one-third less dense than aluminium. It improves the mechanical, fabrication and welding characteristics of aluminium when used as an alloying agent. These alloys are useful in aeroplane and car construction.</div><div><br/></div><div>Magnesium is used in products that benefit from being lightweight, such as car seats, luggage, laptops, cameras and power tools. It is also added to molten iron and steel to remove sulfur. </div><div><br/></div><div>As magnesium ignites easily in air and burns with a bright light, it’s used in flares, fireworks and sparklers.</div><div><br/></div><div>Magnesium sulfate is sometimes used as a mordant for dyes. Magnesium hydroxide is added to plastics to make them fire retardant. Magnesium oxide is used to make heat-resistant bricks for fireplaces and furnaces. It is also added to cattle feed and fertilisers. Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia), sulfate (Epsom salts), chloride and citrate are all used in medicine.</div><div><br/></div><div>Grignard reagents are organic magnesium compounds that are important for the chemical industry. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.73,
"CovalentRadius": 1.4,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.31,
"IonisationEnergies": [
737.75,
1450.683,
7732.692,
10542.519,
13630.48,
18019.6,
21711.13,
25661.24
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>24</sup>Mg",
"Mass": 23.985,
"NaturalAbundance": 78.99,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>25</sup>Mg",
"Mass": 24.986,
"NaturalAbundance": 10,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>26</sup>Mg",
"Mass": 25.983,
"NaturalAbundance": 11.01,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Joseph Black",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from Magnesia, a district of Eastern Thessaly in Greece.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1755"
},
{
"Number": 13,
"Type": "Poor",
"Mass": 26.982,
"Name": "Aluminium",
"Acronym": "Al",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
3
],
"Group": "13",
"Period": 3,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 933.473,
"BoilingPoint": 2792,
"Orbitals": "[Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup>3p<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>27</sup>Al",
"Mass": 26.982,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Aluminium is a silvery-white, lightweight metal. It is soft and malleable.",
"Uses": "<div>Aluminium is used in a huge variety of products including cans, foils, kitchen utensils, window frames, beer kegs and aeroplane parts. This is because of its particular properties. It has low density, is non-toxic, has a high thermal conductivity, has excellent corrosion resistance and can be easily cast, machined and formed. It is also non-magnetic and non-sparking. It is the second most malleable metal and the sixth most ductile.</div><div><br/></div><div>It is often used as an alloy because aluminium itself is not particularly strong. Alloys with copper, manganese, magnesium and silicon are lightweight but strong. They are very important in the construction of aeroplanes and other forms of transport.</div><div><br/></div><div>Aluminium is a good electrical conductor and is often used in electrical transmission lines. It is cheaper than copper and weight for weight is almost twice as good a conductor.</div><div><br/></div><div>When evaporated in a vacuum, aluminium forms a highly reflective coating for both light and heat. It does not deteriorate, like a silver coating would. These aluminium coatings have many uses, including telescope mirrors, decorative paper, packages and toys. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.84,
"CovalentRadius": 1.24,
"ElectronAffinity": 41.762,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.61,
"IonisationEnergies": [
577.539,
1816.679,
2744.781,
11577.469,
14841.857,
18379.49,
23326.3,
27465.52
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>27</sup>Al",
"Mass": 26.982,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": " Hans Oersted",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin name for alum, 'alumen' meaning bitter salt.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1825"
},
{
"Number": 14,
"Type": "Metalloid",
"Mass": 28.085,
"Name": "Silicon",
"Acronym": "Si",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
4
],
"Group": "14",
"Period": 3,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1687,
"BoilingPoint": 3538,
"Orbitals": "[Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup>3p<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>28</sup>Si",
"Mass": 27.977,
"NaturalAbundance": 92.223,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>30</sup>Si",
"Mass": 29.974,
"NaturalAbundance": 3.092,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "The element, when ultrapure, is a solid with a blue-grey metallic sheen.",
"Uses": "<div>Silicon is one of the most useful elements to mankind. Most is used to make alloys including aluminium-silicon and ferro-silicon (iron-silicon). These are used to make dynamo and transformer plates, engine blocks, cylinder heads and machine tools and to deoxidise steel.</div><div><br/></div><div>Silicon is also used to make silicones. These are silicon-oxygen polymers with methyl groups attached. Silicone oil is a lubricant and is added to some cosmetics and hair conditioners. Silicone rubber is used as a waterproof sealant in bathrooms and around windows, pipes and roofs. </div><div><br/></div><div>The element silicon is used extensively as a semiconductor in solid-state devices in the computer and microelectronics industries. For this, hyperpure silicon is needed. The silicon is selectively doped with tiny amounts of boron, gallium, phosphorus or arsenic to control its electrical properties. </div><div><br/></div><div>Granite and most other rocks are complex silicates, and these are used for civil engineering projects. Sand (silicon dioxide or silica) and clay (aluminium silicate) are used to make concrete and cement. Sand is also the principal ingredient of glass, which has thousands of uses. Silicon, as silicate, is present in pottery, enamels and high-temperature ceramics.</div><div><br/></div><div>Silicon carbides are important abrasives and are also used in lasers. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.1,
"CovalentRadius": 1.14,
"ElectronAffinity": 134.068,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.9,
"IonisationEnergies": [
786.518,
1577.134,
3231.585,
4355.523,
16090.571,
19805.55,
23783.6,
29287.16
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>28</sup>Si",
"Mass": 27.977,
"NaturalAbundance": 92.223,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>29</sup>Si",
"Mass": 28.976,
"NaturalAbundance": 4.685,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>30</sup>Si",
"Mass": 29.974,
"NaturalAbundance": 3.092,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Jöns Jacob Berzelius",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin 'silex' or 'silicis', meaning flint.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1824"
},
{
"Number": 15,
"Type": "Nonmetal",
"Mass": 30.974,
"Name": "Phosphorus",
"Acronym": "P",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
5
],
"Group": "15",
"Period": 3,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 317.3,
"BoilingPoint": 553.7,
"Orbitals": "[Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup>3p<sup>3</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>31</sup>P",
"Mass": 30.974,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "The two main forms of phosphorus are white phosphorus and red phosphorus. White phosphorus is a poisonous waxy solid and contact with skin can cause severe burns. It glows in the dark and is spontaneously flammable when exposed to air. Red phosphorus is an amorphous non-toxic solid.",
"Uses": "<div>White phosphorus is used in flares and incendiary devices. Red phosphorus is in the material stuck on the side of matchboxes, used to strike safety matches against to light them. </div><div><br/></div><div>By far the largest use of phosphorus compounds is for fertilisers. Ammonium phosphate is made from phosphate ores. The ores are first converted into phosphoric acids before being made into ammonium phosphate.</div><div><br/></div><div>Phosphorus is also important in the production of steel. Phosphates are ingredients in some detergents, but are beginning to be phased out in some countries. This is because they can lead to high phosphate levels in natural water supplies causing unwanted algae to grow. Phosphates are also used in the production of special glasses and fine chinaware. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.8,
"CovalentRadius": 1.09,
"ElectronAffinity": 72.037,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.19,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1011.812,
1907.467,
2914.118,
4963.582,
6273.969,
21267.395,
25430.64,
29871.9
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>31</sup>P",
"Mass": 30.974,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Hennig Brandt",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'phosphoros', meaning bringer of light.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1669"
},
{
"Number": 16,
"Type": "Nonmetal",
"Mass": 32.06,
"Name": "Sulfur",
"Acronym": "S",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
6
],
"Group": "16",
"Period": 3,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 388.36,
"BoilingPoint": 717.76,
"Orbitals": "[Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup>3p<sup>4</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>32</sup>S",
"Mass": 31.972,
"NaturalAbundance": 94.99,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "There are several allotropes of sulfur. The most common appears as yellow crystals or powder. ",
"Uses": "<div>Sulfur is used in the vulcanisation of black rubber, as a fungicide and in black gunpowder. Most sulfur is, however, used in the production of sulfuric acid, which is perhaps the most important chemical manufactured by western civilisations. The most important of sulfuric acid’s many uses is in the manufacture of phosphoric acid, to make phosphates for fertilisers. </div><div><br/></div><div>Mercaptans are a family of organosulfur compounds. Some are added to natural gas supplies because of their distinctive smell, so that gas leaks can be detected easily. Others are used in silver polish, and in the production of pesticides and herbicides. </div><div><br/></div><div>Sulfites are used to bleach paper and as preservatives for many foodstuffs. Many surfactants and detergents are sulfate derivatives. Calcium sulfate (gypsum) is mined on the scale of 100 million tonnes each year for use in cement and plaster.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.8,
"CovalentRadius": 1.04,
"ElectronAffinity": 200.41,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.58,
"IonisationEnergies": [
999.589,
2251.763,
3356.72,
4556.231,
7004.305,
8495.824,
27107.363,
31719.56
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>32</sup>S",
"Mass": 31.972,
"NaturalAbundance": 94.99,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>33</sup>S",
"Mass": 32.971,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.75,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>34</sup>S",
"Mass": 33.968,
"NaturalAbundance": 4.25,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>36</sup>S",
"Mass": 35.967,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.01,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived either from the Sanskrit 'sulvere', or the Latin 'sulfurium'.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "Prehistoric"
},
{
"Number": 17,
"Type": "Nonmetal",
"Mass": 35.45,
"Name": "Chlorine",
"Acronym": "Cl",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
7
],
"Group": "17",
"Period": 3,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Gas",
"MeltingPoint": 171.7,
"BoilingPoint": 239.11,
"Orbitals": "[Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup>3p<sup>5</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>35</sup>Cl",
"Mass": 34.969,
"NaturalAbundance": 75.76,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>37</sup>Cl",
"Mass": 36.966,
"NaturalAbundance": 24.24,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A yellowy-green dense gas with a choking smell. ",
"Uses": "<div>Chlorine kills bacteria – it is a disinfectant. It is used to treat drinking water and swimming pool water. It is also used to make hundreds of consumer products from paper to paints, and from textiles to insecticides. </div><div><br/></div><div>About 20% of chlorine produced is used to make PVC. This is a very versatile plastic used in window frames, car interiors, electrical wiring insulation, water pipes, blood bags and vinyl flooring.</div><div><br/></div><div>Another major use for chlorine is in organic chemistry. It is used as an oxidising agent and in substitution reactions. 85% of pharmaceuticals use chlorine or its compounds at some stage in their manufacture.</div><div><br/></div><div>In the past chlorine was commonly used to make chloroform (an anaesthetic) and carbon tetrachloride (a dry-cleaning solvent). However, both of these chemicals are now strictly controlled as they can cause liver damage. </div><div><br/></div><div>Chlorine gas is itself very poisonous, and was used as a chemical weapon during the First World War.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.75,
"CovalentRadius": 1,
"ElectronAffinity": 348.575,
"ElectronNegativity": 3.16,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1251.186,
2297.663,
3821.78,
5158.608,
6541.7,
9361.97,
11018.221,
33603.91
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>35</sup>Cl",
"Mass": 34.969,
"NaturalAbundance": 75.76,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>37</sup>Cl",
"Mass": 36.966,
"NaturalAbundance": 24.24,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Carl Wilhelm Scheele ",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'chloros', meaning greenish yellow.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1774"
},
{
"Number": 18,
"Type": "Noble",
"Mass": 39.948,
"Name": "Argon",
"Acronym": "Ar",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
8
],
"Group": "18",
"Period": 3,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Gas",
"MeltingPoint": 83.81,
"BoilingPoint": 87.302,
"Orbitals": "[Ne] 3s<sup>2</sup>3p<sup>6</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>40</sup>Ar",
"Mass": 39.962,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.6035,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Argon is a colourless, odourless gas that is totally inert to other substances. ",
"Uses": "<div>Argon is often used when an inert atmosphere is needed. It is used in this way for the production of titanium and other reactive elements. It is also used by welders to protect the weld area and in incandescent light bulbs to stop oxygen from corroding the filament. </div><div><br/></div><div>Argon is used in fluorescent tubes and low-energy light bulbs. A low-energy light bulb often contains argon gas and mercury. When it is switched on an electric discharge passes through the gas, generating UV light. The coating on the inside surface of the bulb is activated by the UV light and it glows brightly. </div><div><br/></div><div>Double-glazed windows use argon to fill the space between the panes. The tyres of luxury cars can contain argon to protect the rubber and reduce road noise.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.88,
"CovalentRadius": 1.01,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1520.571,
2665.857,
3930.81,
5770.79,
7238.33,
8781.034,
11995.347,
13841.79
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>36</sup>Ar",
"Mass": 35.968,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.3336,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>38</sup>Ar",
"Mass": 37.963,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.0629,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>40</sup>Ar",
"Mass": 39.962,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.6035,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek, 'argos', meaning idle.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1894"
},
{
"Number": 19,
"Type": "Alkali",
"Mass": 39.098,
"Name": "Potassium",
"Acronym": "K",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
8,
1
],
"Group": "1",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 336.7,
"BoilingPoint": 1032,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 4s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>39</sup>K",
"Mass": 38.964,
"NaturalAbundance": 93.2581,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery metal that tarnishes in air within minutes.",
"Uses": "The greatest demand for potassium compounds is in fertilisers. Many other potassium salts are of great importance, including the nitrate, carbonate, chloride, bromide, cyanide and sulfate. Potassium carbonate is used in the manufacture of glass. Potassium hydroxide is used to make detergent and liquid soap. Potassium chloride is used in pharmaceuticals and saline drips. ",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.75,
"CovalentRadius": 2,
"ElectronAffinity": 48.385,
"ElectronNegativity": 0.82,
"IonisationEnergies": [
418.81,
3051.83,
4419.607,
5876.92,
7975.48,
9590.6,
11342.82,
14943.65
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>39</sup>K",
"Mass": 38.964,
"NaturalAbundance": 93.2581,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>40</sup>K",
"Mass": 39.964,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.0117,
"HalfLife": [
"1.248 x 10<sup>9</sup> y",
"<br>"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-",
"β+"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>41</sup>K",
"Mass": 40.962,
"NaturalAbundance": 6.7302,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Humphry Davy",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the English word 'potash'.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1807"
},
{
"Number": 20,
"Type": "Alkaline",
"Mass": 40.078,
"Name": "Calcium",
"Acronym": "Ca",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
8,
2
],
"Group": "2",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1115,
"BoilingPoint": 1757,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 4s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>40</sup>Ca",
"Mass": 39.963,
"NaturalAbundance": 96.941,
"HalfLife": [
"5.92 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC-EC"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "Calcium is a silvery-white, soft metal that tarnishes rapidly in air and reacts with water.",
"Uses": "<div>Calcium metal is used as a reducing agent in preparing other metals such as thorium and uranium. It is also used as an alloying agent for aluminium, beryllium, copper, lead and magnesium alloys. </div><div><br/></div><div>Calcium compounds are widely used. There are vast deposits of limestone (calcium carbonate) used directly as a building stone and indirectly for cement. When limestone is heated in kilns it gives off carbon dioxide gas leaving behind quicklime (calcium oxide). This reacts vigorously with water to give slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). Slaked lime is used to make cement, as a soil conditioner and in water treatment to reduce acidity, and in the chemicals industry. It is also used in steel making to remove impurities from the molten iron ore. When mixed with sand, slaked lime takes up carbon dioxide from the air and hardens as lime plaster. </div><div><br/></div><div>Gypsum (calcium sulfate) is used by builders as a plaster and by nurses for setting bones, as ‘plaster of Paris’. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.31,
"CovalentRadius": 1.74,
"ElectronAffinity": 2.369,
"ElectronNegativity": 1,
"IonisationEnergies": [
589.83,
1145.447,
4912.368,
6490.57,
8153,
10495.68,
12272.9,
14206.5
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>40</sup>Ca",
"Mass": 39.963,
"NaturalAbundance": 96.941,
"HalfLife": [
"5.92 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC-EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>42</sup>Ca",
"Mass": 41.959,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.647,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>43</sup>Ca",
"Mass": 42.959,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.135,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>44</sup>Ca",
"Mass": 43.955,
"NaturalAbundance": 2.086,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>46</sup>Ca",
"Mass": 45.954,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.004,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 0.4 x 10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>48</sup>Ca",
"Mass": 47.953,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.187,
"HalfLife": [
"4.4 x 10<sup>19</sup> y",
"&gt; 7.1 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-",
"β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Humphry Davy",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin 'calx' meaning lime.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1808"
},
{
"Number": 21,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 44.956,
"Name": "Scandium",
"Acronym": "Sc",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
9,
2
],
"Group": "3",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1814,
"BoilingPoint": 3109,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>1</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>45</sup>Sc",
"Mass": 44.956,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery metal that tarnishes in air, burns easily and reacts with water.",
"Uses": "<div>Scandium is mainly used for research purposes. It has, however, great potential because it has almost as low a density as aluminium and a much higher melting point. An aluminium-scandium alloy has been used in Russian MIG fighter planes, high-end bicycle frames and baseball bats. </div><div><br/></div><div>Scandium iodide is added to mercury vapour lamps to produce a highly efficient light source resembling sunlight. These lamps help television cameras to reproduce colour well when filming indoors or at night-time. </div><div><br/></div><div>The radioactive isotope scandium-46 is used as a tracer in oil refining to monitor the movement of various fractions. It can also be used in underground pipes to detect leaks.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.15,
"CovalentRadius": 1.59,
"ElectronAffinity": 18.139,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.36,
"IonisationEnergies": [
633.088,
1234.99,
2388.655,
7090.65,
8842.88,
10679,
13315,
15254.3
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>45</sup>Sc",
"Mass": 44.956,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Lars Frederik Nilson",
"OriginOfName": "The name derives from 'Scandia', the Latin name for Scandinavia.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1879"
},
{
"Number": 22,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 47.867,
"Name": "Titanium",
"Acronym": "Ti",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
10,
2
],
"Group": "4",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1943,
"BoilingPoint": 3560,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>2</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>48</sup>Ti",
"Mass": 47.948,
"NaturalAbundance": 73.72,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A hard, shiny and strong metal. ",
"Uses": "<div>Titanium is as strong as steel but much less dense. It is therefore important as an alloying agent with many metals including aluminium, molybdenum and iron. These alloys are mainly used in aircraft, spacecraft and missiles because of their low density and ability to withstand extremes of temperature. They are also used in golf clubs, laptops, bicycles and crutches. </div><div><br/></div><div>Power plant condensers use titanium pipes because of their resistance to corrosion. Because titanium has excellent resistance to corrosion in seawater, it is used in desalination plants and to protect the hulls of ships, submarines and other structures exposed to seawater. </div><div><br/></div><div>Titanium metal connects well with bone, so it has found surgical applications such as in joint replacements (especially hip joints) and tooth implants. </div><div><br/></div><div>The largest use of titanium is in the form of titanium(IV) oxide. It is extensively used as a pigment in house paint, artists’ paint, plastics, enamels and paper. It is a bright white pigment with excellent covering power. It is also a good reflector of infrared radiation and so is used in solar observatories where heat causes poor visibility. </div><div><br/></div><div>Titanium(IV) oxide is used in sunscreens because it prevents UV light from reaching the skin. Nanoparticles of titanium(IV) oxide appear invisible when applied to the skin.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.11,
"CovalentRadius": 1.48,
"ElectronAffinity": 7.622,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.54,
"IonisationEnergies": [
658.813,
1309.837,
2652.546,
4174.651,
9581,
11532.89,
13585.1,
16441.1
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>46</sup>Ti",
"Mass": 45.953,
"NaturalAbundance": 8.25,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>47</sup>Ti",
"Mass": 46.952,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.44,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>48</sup>Ti",
"Mass": 47.948,
"NaturalAbundance": 73.72,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>49</sup>Ti",
"Mass": 48.948,
"NaturalAbundance": 5.41,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>50</sup>Ti",
"Mass": 49.945,
"NaturalAbundance": 5.18,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "William Gregor",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Titans, the sons of the Earth goddess of Greek mythology.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1791"
},
{
"Number": 23,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 50.942,
"Name": "Vanadium",
"Acronym": "V",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
11,
2
],
"Group": "5",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2183,
"BoilingPoint": 3680,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>3</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>51</sup>V",
"Mass": 50.944,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.75,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery metal that resists corrosion. ",
"Uses": "<div>About 80% of the vanadium produced is used as a steel additive. Vanadium-steel alloys are very tough and are used for armour plate, axles, tools, piston rods and crankshafts. Less than 1% of vanadium, and as little chromium, makes steel shock resistant and vibration resistant. Vanadium alloys are used in nuclear reactors because of vanadium’s low neutron-absorbing properties. </div><div><br/></div><div>Vanadium(V) oxide is used as a pigment for ceramics and glass, as a catalyst and in producing superconducting magnets.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.07,
"CovalentRadius": 1.44,
"ElectronAffinity": 50.655,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.63,
"IonisationEnergies": [
650.908,
1410.423,
2828.082,
4506.734,
6298.727,
12362.67,
14530.7,
16730.6
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>50</sup>V",
"Mass": 49.947,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.25,
"HalfLife": [
"1.4 x 10<sup>17</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>51</sup>V",
"Mass": 50.944,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.75,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Andrés Manuel del Rio",
"OriginOfName": "The element is named after 'Vanadis', the old Norse name for the Scandinavian goddess Freyja.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1801"
},
{
"Number": 24,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 51.996,
"Name": "Chromium",
"Acronym": "Cr",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
13,
1
],
"Group": "6",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2180,
"BoilingPoint": 2944,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>5</sup>4s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>52</sup>Cr",
"Mass": 51.941,
"NaturalAbundance": 83.789,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A hard, silvery metal with a blue tinge.",
"Uses": "<div>Chromium is used to harden steel, to manufacture stainless steel (named as it won’t rust) and to produce several alloys. </div><div><br/></div><div>Chromium plating can be used to give a polished mirror finish to steel. Chromium-plated car and lorry parts, such as bumpers, were once very common. It is also possible to chromium plate plastics, which are often used in bathroom fittings.</div><div><br/></div><div>About 90% of all leather is tanned using chrome. However, the waste effluent is toxic so alternatives are being investigated.</div><div><br/></div><div>Chromium compounds are used as industrial catalysts and pigments (in bright green, yellow, red and orange colours). Rubies get their red colour from chromium, and glass treated with chromium has an emerald green colour. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.06,
"CovalentRadius": 1.3,
"ElectronAffinity": 64.259,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.66,
"IonisationEnergies": [
652.869,
1590.628,
2987.19,
4743.22,
6701.87,
8744.939,
15455.02,
17820.8
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>50</sup>Cr",
"Mass": 49.946,
"NaturalAbundance": 4.345,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 1.3 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β+EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>52</sup>Cr",
"Mass": 51.941,
"NaturalAbundance": 83.789,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>53</sup>Cr",
"Mass": 52.941,
"NaturalAbundance": 9.501,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>54</sup>Cr",
"Mass": 53.939,
"NaturalAbundance": 2.365,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Nicholas Louis Vauquelin",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'chroma', meaning colour.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1798"
},
{
"Number": 25,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 54.938,
"Name": "Manganese",
"Acronym": "Mn",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
13,
2
],
"Group": "7",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1519,
"BoilingPoint": 2334,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>5</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>55</sup>Mn",
"Mass": 54.938,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A hard, brittle, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Manganese is too brittle to be of much use as a pure metal. It is mainly used in alloys, such as steel. </div><div><br/></div><div>Steel contains about 1% manganese, to increase the strength and also improve workability and resistance to wear. </div><div><br/></div><div>Manganese steel contains about 13% manganese. This is extremely strong and is used for railway tracks, safes, rifle barrels and prison bars.</div><div><br/></div><div>Drinks cans are made of an alloy of aluminium with 1.5% manganese, to improve resistance to corrosion. With aluminium, antimony and copper it forms highly magnetic alloys. </div><div><br/></div><div>Manganese(IV) oxide is used as a catalyst, a rubber additive and to decolourise glass that is coloured green by iron impurities. Manganese sulfate is used to make a fungicide. Manganese(II) oxide is a powerful oxidising agent and is used in quantitative analysis. It is also used to make fertilisers and ceramics.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.05,
"CovalentRadius": 1.29,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.55,
"IonisationEnergies": [
717.274,
1509.03,
3248.468,
4940,
6985.5,
9224,
11501.342,
18766.4
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>55</sup>Mn",
"Mass": 54.938,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Johan Gottlieb Gahn",
"OriginOfName": "The derivation of Manganese may have come from one of two routes: either from the Latin 'magnes', meaning magnet, or from the black magnesium oxide, 'magnesia nigra'. ",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1774"
},
{
"Number": 26,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 55.845,
"Name": "Iron",
"Acronym": "Fe",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
14,
2
],
"Group": "8",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1811,
"BoilingPoint": 3134,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>6</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>56</sup>Fe",
"Mass": 55.935,
"NaturalAbundance": 91.754,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A shiny, greyish metal that rusts in damp air.",
"Uses": "<div>Iron is an enigma – it rusts easily, yet it is the most important of all metals. 90% of all metal that is refined today is iron. </div><div><br/></div><div>Most is used to manufacture steel, used in civil engineering (reinforced concrete, girders etc) and in manufacturing. </div><div><br/></div><div>There are many different types of steel with different properties and uses. Ordinary carbon steel is an alloy of iron with carbon (from 0.1% for mild steel up to 2% for high carbon steels), with small amounts of other elements. </div><div><br/></div><div>Alloy steels are carbon steels with other additives such as nickel, chromium, vanadium, tungsten and manganese. These are stronger and tougher than carbon steels and have a huge variety of applications including bridges, electricity pylons, bicycle chains, cutting tools and rifle barrels.</div><div><br/></div><div>Stainless steel is very resistant to corrosion. It contains at least 10.5% chromium. Other metals such as nickel, molybdenum, titanium and copper are added to enhance its strength and workability. It is used in architecture, bearings, cutlery, surgical instruments and jewellery.</div><div><br/></div><div>Cast iron contains 3–5% carbon. It is used for pipes, valves and pumps. It is not as tough as steel but it is cheaper. Magnets can be made of iron and its alloys and compounds.</div><div><br/></div><div>Iron catalysts are used in the Haber process for producing ammonia, and in the Fischer–Tropsch process for converting syngas (hydrogen and carbon monoxide) into liquid fuels.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.04,
"CovalentRadius": 1.24,
"ElectronAffinity": 14.569,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.83,
"IonisationEnergies": [
762.466,
1561.876,
2957.469,
5287.4,
7236,
9561.7,
12058.74,
14575.08
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>54</sup>Fe",
"Mass": 53.94,
"NaturalAbundance": 5.845,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 3.1 x 10<sup>22</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC-EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>56</sup>Fe",
"Mass": 55.935,
"NaturalAbundance": 91.754,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>57</sup>Fe",
"Mass": 56.935,
"NaturalAbundance": 2.119,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>58</sup>Fe",
"Mass": 57.933,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.282,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from the Anglo-Saxon name 'iren'.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "approx 3500BC"
},
{
"Number": 27,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 58.933,
"Name": "Cobalt",
"Acronym": "Co",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
15,
2
],
"Group": "9",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1768,
"BoilingPoint": 3200,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>7</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>59</sup>Co",
"Mass": 58.933,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A lustrous, silvery-blue metal. It is magnetic.",
"Uses": "<div>Cobalt, like iron, can be magnetised and so is used to make magnets. It is alloyed with aluminium and nickel to make particularly powerful magnets.</div><div><br/></div><div>Other alloys of cobalt are used in jet turbines and gas turbine generators, where high-temperature strength is important.</div><div><br/></div><div>Cobalt metal is sometimes used in electroplating because of its attractive appearance, hardness and resistance to corrosion. </div><div><br/></div><div>Cobalt salts have been used for centuries to produce brilliant blue colours in paint, porcelain, glass, pottery and enamels. </div><div><br/></div><div>Radioactive cobalt-60 is used to treat cancer and, in some countries, to irradiate food to preserve it. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2,
"CovalentRadius": 1.18,
"ElectronAffinity": 63.873,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.88,
"IonisationEnergies": [
760.402,
1648.356,
3232.3,
4949.7,
7670.6,
9842,
12437,
15225.4
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>59</sup>Co",
"Mass": 58.933,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Georg Brandt",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the German word 'kobald', meaning goblin.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1739"
},
{
"Number": 28,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 58.693,
"Name": "Nickel",
"Acronym": "Ni",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
16,
2
],
"Group": "10",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1728,
"BoilingPoint": 3186,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>8</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>58</sup>Ni",
"Mass": 57.935,
"NaturalAbundance": 68.077,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 4 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC-EC"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery metal that resists corrosion even at high temperatures.",
"Uses": "<div>Nickel resists corrosion and is used to plate other metals to protect them. It is, however, mainly used in making alloys such as stainless steel. Nichrome is an alloy of nickel and chromium with small amounts of silicon, manganese and iron. It resists corrosion, even when red hot, so is used in toasters and electric ovens. A copper-nickel alloy is commonly used in desalination plants, which convert seawater into fresh water. Nickel steel is used for armour plating. Other alloys of nickel are used in boat propeller shafts and turbine blades.</div><div><br/></div><div>Nickel is used in batteries, including rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries and nickel-metal hydride batteries used in hybrid vehicles.</div><div><br/></div><div>Nickel has a long history of being used in coins. The US five-cent piece (known as a ‘nickel’) is 25% nickel and 75% copper. </div><div><br/></div><div>Finely divided nickel is used as a catalyst for hydrogenating vegetable oils. Adding nickel to glass gives it a green colour. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.97,
"CovalentRadius": 1.17,
"ElectronAffinity": 111.537,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.91,
"IonisationEnergies": [
737.129,
1753.027,
3395.32,
5297,
7338.67,
10420,
12833,
15631
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>58</sup>Ni",
"Mass": 57.935,
"NaturalAbundance": 68.077,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 4 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC-EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>60</sup>Ni",
"Mass": 59.931,
"NaturalAbundance": 26.223,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>61</sup>Ni",
"Mass": 60.931,
"NaturalAbundance": 1.1399,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>62</sup>Ni",
"Mass": 61.928,
"NaturalAbundance": 3.6346,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>64</sup>Ni",
"Mass": 63.928,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.9255,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Axel Fredrik Cronstedt",
"OriginOfName": "The name is the shortened for of the German 'kupfernickel' meaning either devil's copper or St. Nicholas's copper.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1751"
},
{
"Number": 29,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 63.546,
"Name": "Copper",
"Acronym": "Cu",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
1
],
"Group": "11",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1357.77,
"BoilingPoint": 2833,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>4s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>63</sup>Cu",
"Mass": 62.93,
"NaturalAbundance": 69.15,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A reddish-gold metal that is easily worked and drawn into wires.",
"Uses": "<div>Historically, copper was the first metal to be worked by people. The discovery that it could be hardened with a little tin to form the alloy bronze gave the name to the Bronze Age. </div><div><br/></div><div>Traditionally it has been one of the metals used to make coins, along with silver and gold. However, it is the most common of the three and therefore the least valued. All US coins are now copper alloys, and gun metals also contain copper. </div><div><br/></div><div>Most copper is used in electrical equipment such as wiring and motors. This is because it conducts both heat and electricity very well, and can be drawn into wires. It also has uses in construction (for example roofing and plumbing), and industrial machinery (such as heat exchangers).</div><div><br/></div><div>Copper sulfate is used widely as an agricultural poison and as an algicide in water purification. </div><div><br/></div><div>Copper compounds, such as Fehling’s solution, are used in chemical tests for sugar detection. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.96,
"CovalentRadius": 1.22,
"ElectronAffinity": 119.159,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.9,
"IonisationEnergies": [
745.482,
1957.919,
3554.616,
5536.33,
7699.5,
9938,
13411,
16017
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>63</sup>Cu",
"Mass": 62.93,
"NaturalAbundance": 69.15,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>65</sup>Cu",
"Mass": 64.928,
"NaturalAbundance": 30.85,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Old English name 'coper' in turn derived from the Latin 'Cyprium aes', meaning a metal from Cyprus",
"DiscoveredWhen": "Prehistoric"
},
{
"Number": 30,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 65.38,
"Name": "Zinc",
"Acronym": "Zn",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
2
],
"Group": "12",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 692.677,
"BoilingPoint": 1180,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>64</sup>Zn",
"Mass": 63.929,
"NaturalAbundance": 49.17,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 7 x 10<sup>20</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC-β+"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery-white metal with a blue tinge. It tarnishes in air.",
"Uses": "<div>Most zinc is used to galvanise other metals, such as iron, to prevent rusting. Galvanised steel is used for car bodies, street lamp posts, safety barriers and suspension bridges. </div><div><br/></div><div>Large quantities of zinc are used to produce die-castings, which are important in the automobile, electrical and hardware industries. Zinc is also used in alloys such as brass, nickel silver and aluminium solder. </div><div><br/></div><div>Zinc oxide is widely used in the manufacture of very many products such as paints, rubber, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, plastics, inks, soaps, batteries, textiles and electrical equipment. Zinc sulfide is used in making luminous paints, fluorescent lights and x-ray screens. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.01,
"CovalentRadius": 1.2,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.65,
"IonisationEnergies": [
906.402,
1733.3,
3832.687,
5731.2,
7969.7,
10420,
12929,
16788
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>64</sup>Zn",
"Mass": 63.929,
"NaturalAbundance": 49.17,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 7 x 10<sup>20</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC-β+"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>66</sup>Zn",
"Mass": 65.926,
"NaturalAbundance": 27.73,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>67</sup>Zn",
"Mass": 66.927,
"NaturalAbundance": 4.04,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>68</sup>Zn",
"Mass": 67.925,
"NaturalAbundance": 18.45,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>70</sup>Zn",
"Mass": 69.925,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.61,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 2.3 x 10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Andreas Marggraf",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the German, 'zinc', which may in turn be derived from the Persian word 'sing', meaning stone.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "Identified as an element in 1746, but known to the Greeks and Romans before 20BC."
},
{
"Number": 31,
"Type": "Poor",
"Mass": 69.723,
"Name": "Gallium",
"Acronym": "Ga",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
3
],
"Group": "13",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 302.9146,
"BoilingPoint": 2502,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>4p<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>69</sup>Ga",
"Mass": 68.926,
"NaturalAbundance": 60.108,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Gallium is a soft, silvery-white metal, similar to aluminium. ",
"Uses": "<div>Gallium arsenide has a similar structure to silicon and is a useful silicon substitute for the electronics industry. It is an important component of many semiconductors. It is also used in red LEDs (light emitting diodes) because of its ability to convert electricity to light. Solar panels on the Mars Exploration Rover contained gallium arsenide.</div><div><br/></div><div>Gallium nitride is also a semiconductor. It has particular properties that make it very versatile. It has important uses in Blu-ray technology, mobile phones, blue and green LEDs and pressure sensors for touch switches.</div><div><br/></div><div>Gallium readily alloys with most metals. It is particularly used in low-melting alloys. </div><div><br/></div><div>It has a high boiling point, which makes it ideal for recording temperatures that would vaporise a thermometer. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.87,
"CovalentRadius": 1.23,
"ElectronAffinity": 41.49,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.81,
"IonisationEnergies": [
578.845,
1979.411,
2964.589,
6101.829,
8298.7,
10873.9,
13594.8,
16392.9
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>69</sup>Ga",
"Mass": 68.926,
"NaturalAbundance": 60.108,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>71</sup>Ga",
"Mass": 70.925,
"NaturalAbundance": 39.892,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 2.4 x 10<sup>26</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin name for France, 'Gallia'",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1875"
},
{
"Number": 32,
"Type": "Metalloid",
"Mass": 72.63,
"Name": "Germanium",
"Acronym": "Ge",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
4
],
"Group": "14",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1211.4,
"BoilingPoint": 3106,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>4p<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>73</sup>Ge",
"Mass": 72.923,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.75,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 1.8 x 10<sup>23</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>74</sup>Ge",
"Mass": 73.921,
"NaturalAbundance": 36.5,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery-white semi-metal. It is brittle.",
"Uses": "<div>Germanium is a semiconductor. The pure element was commonly doped with arsenic, gallium or other elements and used as a transistor in thousands of electronic applications. Today, however, other semiconductors have replaced it.</div><div><br/></div><div>Germanium oxide has a high index of refraction and dispersion. This makes it suitable for use in wide-angle camera lenses and objective lenses for microscopes. This is now the major use for this element.</div><div><br/></div><div>Germanium is also used as an alloying agent (adding 1% germanium to silver stops it from tarnishing), in fluorescent lamps and as a catalyst. </div><div><br/></div><div>Both germanium and germanium oxide are transparent to infrared radiation and so are used in infrared spectroscopes. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.11,
"CovalentRadius": 1.2,
"ElectronAffinity": 118.939,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.01,
"IonisationEnergies": [
762.179,
1537.456,
3302.124,
4410.644,
9021.4
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>70</sup>Ge",
"Mass": 69.924,
"NaturalAbundance": 20.57,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>72</sup>Ge",
"Mass": 71.922,
"NaturalAbundance": 27.45,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>73</sup>Ge",
"Mass": 72.923,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.75,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 1.8 x 10<sup>23</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>74</sup>Ge",
"Mass": 73.921,
"NaturalAbundance": 36.5,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>76</sup>Ge",
"Mass": 75.921,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.73,
"HalfLife": [
"1.6 X 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Clemens Winkler",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin name for Germany, 'Germania'.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1886"
},
{
"Number": 33,
"Type": "Metalloid",
"Mass": 74.922,
"Name": "Arsenic",
"Acronym": "As",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
5
],
"Group": "15",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 889,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>4p<sup>3</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>75</sup>As",
"Mass": 74.922,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": " Arsenic is a semi-metal. In its metallic form it is bright, silver-grey and brittle.",
"Uses": "<div>Arsenic is a well-known poison. Arsenic compounds are sometimes used as rat poisons and insecticides but their use is strictly controlled. </div><div><br></div><div>Surprisingly, arsenic can also have medicinal applications. In Victorian times, Dr Fowler’s Solution (potassium arsenate dissolved in water) was a popular cure-all tonic that was even used by Charles Dickens. Today, organoarsenic compounds are added to poultry feed to prevent disease and improve weight gain.</div><div><br></div><div>Arsenic is used as a doping agent in semiconductors (gallium arsenide) for solid-state devices. It is also used in bronzing, pyrotechnics and for hardening shot. </div><div><br></div><div>Arsenic compounds can be used to make special glass and preserve wood. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.85,
"CovalentRadius": 1.2,
"ElectronAffinity": 77.574,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.18,
"IonisationEnergies": [
944.456,
1793.585,
2735.456,
4836.81,
6042.88,
12311.5
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>75</sup>As",
"Mass": 74.922,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Albertus Magnus",
"OriginOfName": "The name is thought to come from 'arsenikon', the Greek name for the yellow pigment orpiment.",
"DiscoveredWhen": " approx 1250"
},
{
"Number": 34,
"Type": "Nonmetal",
"Mass": 78.971,
"Name": "Selenium",
"Acronym": "Se",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
6
],
"Group": "16",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 494,
"BoilingPoint": 958,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>4p<sup>4</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>80</sup>Se",
"Mass": 79.917,
"NaturalAbundance": 49.61,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A semi-metal that can exist in two forms: as a silvery metal or as a red powder.",
"Uses": "<div>The biggest use of selenium is as an additive to glass. Some selenium compounds decolourise glass, while others give a deep red colour. Selenium can also be used to reduce the transmission of sunlight in architectural glass, giving it a bronze tint. Selenium is used to make pigments for ceramics, paint and plastics.</div><div><br/></div><div>Selenium has both a photovoltaic action (converts light to electricity) and a photoconductive action (electrical resistance decreases with increased illumination). It is therefore useful in photocells, solar cells and photocopiers. It can also convert AC electricity to DC electricity, so is extensively used in rectifiers. </div><div><br/></div><div>Selenium is toxic to the scalp fungus that causes dandruff so it is used in some anti-dandruff shampoos. Selenium is also used as an additive to make stainless steel. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.9,
"CovalentRadius": 1.18,
"ElectronAffinity": 194.965,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.55,
"IonisationEnergies": [
940.963,
2044.52,
2973.717,
4143.563,
6589.9,
7882.9,
14993.8
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>74</sup>Se",
"Mass": 73.922,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.89,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 5.5 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC-EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>76</sup>Se",
"Mass": 75.919,
"NaturalAbundance": 9.37,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>77</sup>Se",
"Mass": 76.92,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.63,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>78</sup>Se",
"Mass": 77.917,
"NaturalAbundance": 23.77,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>80</sup>Se",
"Mass": 79.917,
"NaturalAbundance": 49.61,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>82</sup>Se",
"Mass": 81.917,
"NaturalAbundance": 8.73,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 9.5 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Jöns Jacob Berzelius",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from 'selene', the Greek name for the Moon.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1817"
},
{
"Number": 35,
"Type": "Nonmetal",
"Mass": 79.904,
"Name": "Bromine",
"Acronym": "Br",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
7
],
"Group": "17",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Liquid",
"MeltingPoint": 266,
"BoilingPoint": 332,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>4p<sup>5</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>79</sup>Br",
"Mass": 78.918,
"NaturalAbundance": 50.69,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Bromine is a deep-red, oily liquid with a sharp smell. It is toxic.",
"Uses": "<div>Bromine is used in many areas such as agricultural chemicals, dyestuffs, insecticides, pharmaceuticals and chemical intermediates. Some uses are being phased out for environmental reasons, but new uses continue to be found. </div><div><br/></div><div>Bromine compounds can be used as flame retardants. They are added to furniture foam, plastic casings for electronics and textiles to make them less flammable. However, the use of bromine as a flame retardant has been phased out in the USA because of toxicity concerns.</div><div><br/></div><div>Organobromides are used in halon fire extinguishers that are used to fight fires in places like museums, aeroplanes and tanks. Silver bromide is a chemical used in film photography.</div><div><br/></div><div>Before leaded fuels were phased out, bromine was used to prepare 1,2-di-bromoethane, which was an anti-knock agent. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.85,
"CovalentRadius": 1.17,
"ElectronAffinity": 324.537,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.96,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1139.859,
2083.215,
3473,
4563.8,
5760.2,
8548.6,
9938,
18602.4
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>79</sup>Br",
"Mass": 78.918,
"NaturalAbundance": 50.69,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>81</sup>Br",
"Mass": 80.916,
"NaturalAbundance": 49.31,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Antoine-Jérôme Balard&nbsp;in Montpellier, France and Carl Löwig in Heidelberg, Germany",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from the Greek 'bromos' meaning stench.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1826"
},
{
"Number": 36,
"Type": "Noble",
"Mass": 83.798,
"Name": "Krypton",
"Acronym": "Kr",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
8
],
"Group": "18",
"Period": 4,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Gas",
"MeltingPoint": 115.78,
"BoilingPoint": 119.735,
"Orbitals": "[Ar] 3d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>4s<sup>2</sup>4p<sup>6</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>84</sup>Kr",
"Mass": 83.911,
"NaturalAbundance": 56.987,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Krypton is a gas with no colour or smell. It does not react with anything except fluorine gas.",
"Uses": "<div>Krypton is used commercially as a filling gas for energy-saving fluorescent lights. It is also used in some flash lamps used for high-speed photography. </div><div><br/></div><div>Unlike the lighter gases in its group, it is reactive enough to form some chemical compounds. For example, krypton will react with fluorine to form krypton fluoride. Krypton fluoride is used in some lasers.</div><div><br/></div><div>Radioactive krypton was used during the Cold War to estimate Soviet nuclear production. The gas is a product of all nuclear reactors, so the Russian share was found by subtracting the amount that came from Western reactors from the total in the air. </div><div><br/></div><div>From 1960 to 1983 the isotope krypton-86 was used to define the standard measure of length. One metre was defined as exactly 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of a line in the atomic spectrum of the isotope.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.02,
"CovalentRadius": 1.16,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1350.757,
2350.367,
3565.13,
5065.5,
6242.6,
7574.1,
10710,
12138.049
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>78</sup>Kr",
"Mass": 77.92,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.355,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 1.5 x 10<sup>21</sup>&nbsp;y<br>"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC-EC<br>"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>80</sup>Kr",
"Mass": 79.916,
"NaturalAbundance": 2.286,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>82</sup>Kr",
"Mass": 81.913,
"NaturalAbundance": 11.593,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>83</sup>Kr",
"Mass": 82.914,
"NaturalAbundance": 11.5,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>84</sup>Kr",
"Mass": 83.911,
"NaturalAbundance": 56.987,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>86</sup>Kr",
"Mass": 85.911,
"NaturalAbundance": 17.279,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Sir William Ramsay and Morris Travers",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'kryptos', meaning hidden.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1898"
},
{
"Number": 37,
"Type": "Alkali",
"Mass": 85.468,
"Name": "Rubidium",
"Acronym": "Rb",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
8,
1
],
"Group": "1",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 312.45,
"BoilingPoint": 961,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 5s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>85</sup>Rb",
"Mass": 84.912,
"NaturalAbundance": 72.17,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>87</sup>Rb",
"Mass": 86.909,
"NaturalAbundance": 27.83,
"HalfLife": [
"4.88 x 10<sup>10</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft metal that ignites in the air and reacts violently with water.",
"Uses": "<div>Rubidium is little used outside research. It has been used as a component of photocells, to remove traces of oxygen from vacuum tubes and to make special types of glass. </div><div><br/></div><div>It is easily ionised so was considered for use in ion engines, but was found to be less effective than caesium. It has also been proposed for use as a working fluid for vapour turbines and in thermoelectric generators.</div><div><br/></div><div>Rubidium nitrate is sometimes used in fireworks to give them a purple colour.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 3.03,
"CovalentRadius": 2.15,
"ElectronAffinity": 46.884,
"ElectronNegativity": 0.82,
"IonisationEnergies": [
403.032,
2633.037,
3859,
5075.1,
6850,
8143.4,
9571.3,
13122
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>85</sup>Rb",
"Mass": 84.912,
"NaturalAbundance": 72.17,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>87</sup>Rb",
"Mass": 86.909,
"NaturalAbundance": 27.83,
"HalfLife": [
"4.88 x 10<sup>10</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived form the Latin 'rubidius', meaning deepest red.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1861"
},
{
"Number": 38,
"Type": "Alkaline",
"Mass": 87.62,
"Name": "Strontium",
"Acronym": "Sr",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
8,
2
],
"Group": "2",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1050,
"BoilingPoint": 1650,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 5s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>86</sup>Sr",
"Mass": 85.909,
"NaturalAbundance": 9.86,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>87</sup>Sr",
"Mass": 86.909,
"NaturalAbundance": 7,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>88</sup>Sr",
"Mass": 87.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 82.58,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery metal that burns in air and reacts with water.",
"Uses": "<div>Strontium is best known for the brilliant reds its salts give to fireworks and flares. It is also used in producing ferrite magnets and refining zinc. </div><div><br/></div><div>Modern ‘glow-in-the-dark’ paints and plastics contain strontium aluminate. They absorb light during the day and release it slowly for hours afterwards.</div><div><br/></div><div>Strontium-90, a radioactive isotope, is a by-product of nuclear reactors and present in nuclear fallout. It has a half-life of 28 years. It is absorbed by bone tissue instead of calcium and can destroy bone marrow and cause cancer. However, it is also useful as it is one of the best high-energy beta-emitters known. It can be used to generate electricity for space vehicles, remote weather stations and navigation buoys. It can also be used for thickness gauges and to remove static charges from machinery handling paper or plastic.</div><div><br/></div><div>Strontium chloride hexahydrate is an ingredient in toothpaste for sensitive teeth.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.49,
"CovalentRadius": 1.9,
"ElectronAffinity": 4.631,
"ElectronNegativity": 0.95,
"IonisationEnergies": [
549.47,
1064.243,
4138.26,
5500,
6908.4,
8760.9,
10227,
11800.2
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>84</sup>Sr",
"Mass": 83.913,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.56,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>86</sup>Sr",
"Mass": 85.909,
"NaturalAbundance": 9.86,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>87</sup>Sr",
"Mass": 86.909,
"NaturalAbundance": 7,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>88</sup>Sr",
"Mass": 87.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 82.58,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Adair Crawford",
"OriginOfName": "Strontium is named after Strontian, a small town in Scotland.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1790"
},
{
"Number": 39,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 88.906,
"Name": "Yttrium",
"Acronym": "Y",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
9,
2
],
"Group": "3",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1795,
"BoilingPoint": 3618,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>1</sup>5s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>89</sup>Y",
"Mass": 88.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Yttrium is often used as an additive in alloys. It increases the strength of aluminium and magnesium alloys. It is also used in the making of microwave filters for radar and has been used as a catalyst in ethene polymerisation.</div><div><br/></div><div>Yttrium-aluminium garnet (YAG) is used in lasers that can cut through metals. It is also used in white LED lights.</div><div><br/></div><div>Yttrium oxide is added to the glass used to make camera lenses to make them heat and shock resistant. It is also used to make superconductors. Yttrium oxysulfide used to be widely used to produce red phosphors for old-style colour television tubes. </div><div><br/></div><div>The radioactive isotope yttrium-90 has medical uses. It can be used to treat some cancers, such as liver cancer.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.32,
"CovalentRadius": 1.76,
"ElectronAffinity": 29.621,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.22,
"IonisationEnergies": [
599.878,
1179.437,
1979.88,
5846.722,
7429,
8973,
11192,
12447
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>89</sup>Y",
"Mass": 88.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Johan Gadolin",
"OriginOfName": "Yttrium is named after Ytterby, Sweden.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1794"
},
{
"Number": 40,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 91.224,
"Name": "Zirconium",
"Acronym": "Zr",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
10,
2
],
"Group": "4",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2127,
"BoilingPoint": 4679,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>2</sup>5s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>90</sup>Zr",
"Mass": 89.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 51.45,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>92</sup>Zr",
"Mass": 91.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 17.15,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>94</sup>Zr",
"Mass": 93.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 17.38,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 10<sup>17</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A hard, silvery metal that is very resistant to corrosion.",
"Uses": "<div>Zirconium does not absorb neutrons, making it an ideal material for use in nuclear power stations. More than 90% of zirconium is used in this way. Nuclear reactors can have more than 100,000 metres of zirconium alloy tubing. With niobium, zirconium is superconductive at low temperatures and is used to make superconducting magnets. </div><div><br/></div><div>Zirconium metal is protected by a thin oxide layer making it exceptionally resistant to corrosion by acids, alkalis and seawater. For this reason it is extensively used by the chemical industry. </div><div><br/></div><div>Zirconium(IV) oxide is used in ultra-strong ceramics. It is used to make crucibles that will withstand heat-shock, furnace linings, foundry bricks, abrasives and by the glass and ceramics industries. It is so strong that even scissors and knives can be made from it. It is also used in cosmetics, antiperspirants, food packaging and to make microwave filters. </div><div><br/></div><div>Zircon is a natural semi-precious gemstone found in a variety of colours. The most desirable have a golden hue. The element was first discovered in this form, resulting in its name. Cubic zirconia (zirconium oxide) is a synthetic gemstone. The colourless stones, when cut, resemble diamonds.</div><div><br/></div><div>Zircon mixed with vanadium or praseodymium makes blue and yellow pigments for glazing pottery.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.23,
"CovalentRadius": 1.64,
"ElectronAffinity": 41.103,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.33,
"IonisationEnergies": [
640.074,
1264,
2218.2,
3313.31,
7752.404
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>90</sup>Zr",
"Mass": 89.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 51.45,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>91</sup>Zr",
"Mass": 90.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 11.22,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>92</sup>Zr",
"Mass": 91.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 17.15,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>94</sup>Zr",
"Mass": 93.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 17.38,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 10<sup>17</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>96</sup>Zr",
"Mass": 95.908,
"NaturalAbundance": 2.8,
"HalfLife": [
"2.3 x 10<sup>19</sup> y",
"&gt; 1.7 x<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-",
"β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Martin Heinrich Klaproth",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived form the Arabic, 'zargun', meaning gold coloured.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1789"
},
{
"Number": 41,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 92.906,
"Name": "Niobium",
"Acronym": "Nb",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
12,
1
],
"Group": "5",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2750,
"BoilingPoint": 5014,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>4</sup>5s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>93</sup>Nb",
"Mass": 92.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery metal that is very resistant to corrosion due to a layer of oxide on its surface.",
"Uses": "<div>Niobium is used in alloys including stainless steel. It improves the strength of the alloys, particularly at low temperatures. Alloys containing niobium are used in jet engines and rockets, beams and girders for buildings and oil rigs, and oil and gas pipelines. </div><div><br/></div><div>This element also has superconducting properties. It is used in superconducting magnets for particle accelerators, MRI scanners and NMR equipment. </div><div><br/></div><div>Niobium oxide compounds are added to glass to increase the refractive index, which allows corrective glasses to be made with thinner lenses. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.18,
"CovalentRadius": 1.56,
"ElectronAffinity": 88.381,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.6,
"IonisationEnergies": [
652.13,
1351,
2415.99,
3695.4,
4877.33,
9847.004,
12061
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>93</sup>Nb",
"Mass": 92.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Charles Hatchett<br>",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from Niobe from Greek mythology, who was the daughter of king Tantalus. This was chosen because of niobium's chemical similarity to tantalum",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1801"
},
{
"Number": 42,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 95.95,
"Name": "Molybdenum",
"Acronym": "Mo",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
13,
1
],
"Group": "6",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2895,
"BoilingPoint": 4912,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>5</sup>5s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>95</sup>Mo",
"Mass": 94.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 15.8,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>96</sup>Mo",
"Mass": 95.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 16.67,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>98</sup>Mo",
"Mass": 97.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 24.39,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A shiny, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Molybdenum has a very high melting point so it is produced and sold as a grey powder. Many molybdenum items are formed by compressing the powder at a very high pressure. </div><div><br/></div><div>Most molybdenum is used to make alloys. It is used in steel alloys to increase strength, hardness, electrical conductivity and resistance to corrosion and wear. These ‘moly steel’ alloys are used in parts of engines. Other alloys are used in heating elements, drills and saw blades. </div><div><br/></div><div>Molybdenum disulfide is used as a lubricant additive. Other uses for molybdenum include catalysts for the petroleum industry, inks for circuit boards, pigments and electrodes.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.17,
"CovalentRadius": 1.46,
"ElectronAffinity": 72.171,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.16,
"IonisationEnergies": [
684.316,
1559.2,
2617.65,
4476.9,
5257.49,
6640.854,
12124.734,
13855.3
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>92</sup>Mo",
"Mass": 91.907,
"NaturalAbundance": 14.53,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 3 x 10<sup>17</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β+-EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>94</sup>Mo",
"Mass": 93.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 9.15,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>95</sup>Mo",
"Mass": 94.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 15.8,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>96</sup>Mo",
"Mass": 95.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 16.67,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>97</sup>Mo",
"Mass": 96.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 9.6,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>98</sup>Mo",
"Mass": 97.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 24.39,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>100</sup>Mo",
"Mass": 99.907,
"NaturalAbundance": 9.82,
"HalfLife": [
"6 x 10<sup>20</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Peter Jacob Hjelm",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'molybdos' meaning lead.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1781"
},
{
"Number": 43,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": -98,
"Name": "Technetium",
"Acronym": "Tc",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
13,
2
],
"Group": "7",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2430,
"BoilingPoint": 4535,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>5</sup>5s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [],
"Appearance": "A radioactive, silvery metal that does not occur naturally.",
"Uses": "<div>The gamma-ray emitting technetium-99m (metastable) is widely used for medical diagnostic studies. Several chemical forms are used to image different parts of the body. </div><div><br/></div><div>Technetium is a remarkable corrosion inhibitor for steel, and adding very small amounts can provide excellent protection. This use is limited to closed systems as technetium is radioactive.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.16,
"CovalentRadius": 1.38,
"ElectronAffinity": 53.07,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.1,
"IonisationEnergies": [
702.41,
1472.37,
2850.18
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>97</sup>Tc",
"Mass": 96.906,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"4.2 x 10<sup>6</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>98</sup>Tc",
"Mass": 97.907,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"6.6 x 10<sup>6</sup> y",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-",
"EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>99</sup>Tc",
"Mass": 98.906,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2.13 x 10<sup>5</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segrè",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'tekhnetos' meaning artificial.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1937"
},
{
"Number": 44,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 101.07,
"Name": "Ruthenium",
"Acronym": "Ru",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
15,
1
],
"Group": "8",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2606,
"BoilingPoint": 4420,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>7</sup>5s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>101</sup>Ru",
"Mass": 100.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 17.06,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>102</sup>Ru",
"Mass": 101.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 31.55,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>104</sup>Ru",
"Mass": 103.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 18.62,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A shiny, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Many new uses are emerging for ruthenium. Most is used in the electronics industry for chip resistors and electrical contacts. Ruthenium oxide is used in the chemical industry to coat the anodes of electrochemical cells for chlorine production. Ruthenium is also used in catalysts for ammonia and acetic acid production. Ruthenium compounds can be used in solar cells, which turn light energy into electrical energy.</div><div><br/></div><div>Ruthenium is one of the most effective hardeners for platinum and palladium, and is alloyed with these metals to make electrical contacts for severe wear resistance. It is used in some jewellery as an alloy with platinum.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.13,
"CovalentRadius": 1.36,
"ElectronAffinity": 101.31,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.2,
"IonisationEnergies": [
710.18,
1617.09,
2746.94
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>96</sup>Ru",
"Mass": 95.908,
"NaturalAbundance": 5.54,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt 3.1 x 10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β+β+"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>98</sup>Ru",
"Mass": 97.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 1.87,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>99</sup>Ru",
"Mass": 98.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 12.76,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>100</sup>Ru",
"Mass": 99.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 12.6,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>101</sup>Ru",
"Mass": 100.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 17.06,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>102</sup>Ru",
"Mass": 101.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 31.55,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>104</sup>Ru",
"Mass": 103.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 18.62,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Karl Karlovich Klaus",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from 'Ruthenia', the Latin name for Russia",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1844"
},
{
"Number": 45,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 102.91,
"Name": "Rhodium",
"Acronym": "Rh",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
16,
1
],
"Group": "9",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2236,
"BoilingPoint": 3968,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>8</sup>5s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>103</sup>Rh",
"Mass": 102.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A hard, shiny, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "<div>The major use of rhodium is in catalytic converters for cars (80%). It reduces nitrogen oxides in exhaust gases. </div><div><br/></div><div>Rhodium is also used as catalysts in the chemical industry, for making nitric acid, acetic acid and hydrogenation reactions. </div><div><br/></div><div>It is used to coat optic fibres and optical mirrors, and for crucibles, thermocouple elements and headlight reflectors. It is used as an electrical contact material as it has a low electrical resistance and is highly resistant to corrosion.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.1,
"CovalentRadius": 1.34,
"ElectronAffinity": 109.704,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.28,
"IonisationEnergies": [
719.675,
1744.45,
2996.83
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>103</sup>Rh",
"Mass": 102.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "William Hyde Wollaston",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'rhodon', meaning rose coloured.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1803"
},
{
"Number": 46,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 106.42,
"Name": "Palladium",
"Acronym": "Pd",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18
],
"Group": "10",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1828,
"BoilingPoint": 3236,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>106</sup>Pd",
"Mass": 105.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 27.33,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A shiny, silvery-white metal that resists corrosion.",
"Uses": "<div>Most palladium is used in catalytic converters for cars. It is also used in jewellery and some dental fillings and crowns. White gold is an alloy of gold that has been decolourised by alloying with another metal, sometimes palladium. </div><div><br/></div><div>It is used in the electronics industry in ceramic capacitors, found in laptop computers and mobile phones. These consist of layers of palladium sandwiched between layers of ceramic.</div><div><br/></div><div>Finely divided palladium is a good catalyst and is used for hydrogenation and dehydrogenation reactions. Hydrogen easily diffuses through heated palladium and this provides a way of separating and purifying the gas.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.1,
"CovalentRadius": 1.3,
"ElectronAffinity": 54.225,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.2,
"IonisationEnergies": [
804.389,
1874.71,
3177.26
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>102</sup>Pd",
"Mass": 101.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 1.02,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>104</sup>Pd",
"Mass": 103.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 11.14,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>105</sup>Pd",
"Mass": 104.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 22.33,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>106</sup>Pd",
"Mass": 105.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 27.33,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>108</sup>Pd",
"Mass": 107.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 26.46,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>110</sup>Pd",
"Mass": 109.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 11.72,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "William Hyde Wollaston",
"OriginOfName": "Palladium is named after the asteroid Pallas, in turn named after the Greek goddess of wisdom, Pallas.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1803"
},
{
"Number": 47,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 107.87,
"Name": "Silver",
"Acronym": "Ag",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18,
1
],
"Group": "11",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1234.93,
"BoilingPoint": 2435,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>5s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>107</sup>Ag",
"Mass": 106.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 51.839,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Silver is a relatively soft, shiny metal. It tarnishes slowly in air as sulfur compounds react with the surface forming black silver sulfide.",
"Uses": "<div>Sterling silver contains 92.5% silver. The rest is copper or some other metal. It is used for jewellery and silver tableware, where appearance is important. </div><div><br/></div><div>Silver is used to make mirrors, as it is the best reflector of visible light known, although it does tarnish with time. It is also used in dental alloys, solder and brazing alloys, electrical contacts and batteries. Silver paints are used for making printed circuits. </div><div><br/></div><div>Silver bromide and iodide were important in the history of photography, because of their sensitivity to light. Even with the rise of digital photography, silver salts are still important in producing high-quality images and protecting against illegal copying. Light-sensitive glass (such as photochromic lenses) works on similar principles. It darkens in bright sunlight and becomes transparent in low sunlight.</div><div><br/></div><div>Silver has antibacterial properties and silver nanoparticles are used in clothing to prevent bacteria from digesting sweat and forming unpleasant odours. Silver threads are woven into the fingertips of gloves so that they can be used with touchscreen phones.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.11,
"CovalentRadius": 1.36,
"ElectronAffinity": 125.624,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.93,
"IonisationEnergies": [
730.995,
2072.26,
3360.58
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>107</sup>Ag",
"Mass": 106.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 51.839,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>109</sup>Ag",
"Mass": 108.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 48.161,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon name, 'siolfur'.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "approx 3000BC"
},
{
"Number": 48,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 112.41,
"Name": "Cadmium",
"Acronym": "Cd",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18,
2
],
"Group": "12",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 594.219,
"BoilingPoint": 1040,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>5s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>114</sup>Cd",
"Mass": 113.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 28.73,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 1.3 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "Cadmium is a silvery metal with a bluish tinge to its surface.",
"Uses": "<div>Cadmium is a poison and is known to cause birth defects and cancer. As a result, there are moves to limit its use. </div><div><br/></div><div>80% of cadmium currently produced is used in rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries. However, they are gradually being phased out and replaced with nickel metal hydride batteries. </div><div><br/></div><div>Cadmium was often used to electroplate steel and protect it from corrosion. It is still used today to protect critical components of aeroplanes and oil platforms.</div><div><br/></div><div>Other past uses of cadmium included phosphors in cathode ray tube colour TV sets, and yellow, orange and red pigments. </div><div><br/></div><div>Cadmium absorbs neutrons and so is used in rods in nuclear reactors to control atomic fission.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.18,
"CovalentRadius": 1.4,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.69,
"IonisationEnergies": [
867.772,
1631.404,
3616.27
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>106</sup>Cd",
"Mass": 105.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 1.25,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 1.9 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC, EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>108</sup>Cd",
"Mass": 107.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.89,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 4.1 x 10<sup>17</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>110</sup>Cd",
"Mass": 109.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 12.49,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>111</sup>Cd",
"Mass": 110.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 12.8,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>112</sup>Cd",
"Mass": 111.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 24.13,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>113</sup>Cd",
"Mass": 112.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 12.22,
"HalfLife": [
"8.04 x 10<sup>15</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>114</sup>Cd",
"Mass": 113.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 28.73,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 1.3 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>116</sup>Cd",
"Mass": 115.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.49,
"HalfLife": [
"3.8 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Friedrich Stromeyer",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin 'cadmia', the name for the mineral calmine.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1817"
},
{
"Number": 49,
"Type": "Poor",
"Mass": 114.82,
"Name": "Indium",
"Acronym": "In",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18,
3
],
"Group": "13",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 429.75,
"BoilingPoint": 2300,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>5s<sup>2</sup>5p<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>115</sup>In",
"Mass": 114.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 95.71,
"HalfLife": [
"4.4 x 10<sup>14</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery metal that is stable in air and water.",
"Uses": "<div>Most indium is used to make indium tin oxide (ITO), which is an important part of touch screens, flatscreen TVs and solar panels. This is because it conducts electricity, bonds strongly to glass and is transparent.</div><div><br/></div><div>Indium nitride, phosphide and antimonide are semiconductors used in transistors and microchips.</div><div><br/></div><div>Indium metal sticks to glass and can be used to give a mirror finish to windows of tall buildings, and as a protective film on welders’ goggles. It has also been used to coat ball bearings in Formula 1 racing cars because of its low friction. </div><div><br/></div><div>An indium alloy has been used for fire-sprinkler systems in shops and warehouses because of its low melting point.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.93,
"CovalentRadius": 1.42,
"ElectronAffinity": 28.9,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.78,
"IonisationEnergies": [
558.299,
1820.707,
2704.48,
5210
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>115</sup>In",
"Mass": 114.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 95.71,
"HalfLife": [
"4.4 x 10<sup>14</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Ferdinand Reich and Hieronymous Richter",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from the Latin 'indicium', meaning violet or indigo.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1863"
},
{
"Number": 50,
"Type": "Poor",
"Mass": 118.71,
"Name": "Tin",
"Acronym": "Sn",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18,
4
],
"Group": "14",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 505.078,
"BoilingPoint": 2859,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>5s<sup>2</sup>5p<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>120</sup>Sn",
"Mass": 119.902,
"NaturalAbundance": 32.58,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, pliable metal. Below 13°C it slowly changes to a powder form.",
"Uses": "<div>Tin has many uses. It takes a high polish and is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion, such as in tin cans, which are made of tin-coated steel. Alloys of tin are important, such as soft solder, pewter, bronze and phosphor bronze. A niobium-tin alloy is used for superconducting magnets. </div><div><br></div><div>Most window glass is made by floating molten glass on molten tin to produce a flat surface. Tin salts sprayed onto glass are used to produce electrically conductive coatings.</div><div><br></div><div>The most important tin salt used is tin(II) chloride, which is used as a reducing agent and as a mordant for dyeing calico and silk. Tin(IV) oxide is used for ceramics and gas sensors. Zinc stannate (Zn2SnO4) is a fire-retardant used in plastics.</div><div><br></div><div>Some tin compounds have been used as anti-fouling paint for ships and boats, to prevent barnacles. However, even at low levels these compounds are deadly to marine life, especially oysters. Its use has now been banned in most countries.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.17,
"CovalentRadius": 1.4,
"ElectronAffinity": 107.298,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.96,
"IonisationEnergies": [
708.581,
1411.793,
2943.054,
3930.332,
6973.96
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>112</sup>Sn",
"Mass": 111.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.97,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>114</sup>Sn",
"Mass": 113.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.66,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>115</sup>Sn",
"Mass": 114.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.34,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>116</sup>Sn",
"Mass": 115.902,
"NaturalAbundance": 14.54,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>117</sup>Sn",
"Mass": 116.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.68,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>118</sup>Sn",
"Mass": 117.902,
"NaturalAbundance": 24.22,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>119</sup>Sn",
"Mass": 118.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 8.59,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>120</sup>Sn",
"Mass": 119.902,
"NaturalAbundance": 32.58,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>122</sup>Sn",
"Mass": 121.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 4.63,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>124</sup>Sn",
"Mass": 123.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 5.79,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt 2.2 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from the Anglo-Saxon 'tin'",
"DiscoveredWhen": "approx 2100BC"
},
{
"Number": 51,
"Type": "Metalloid",
"Mass": 121.76,
"Name": "Antimony",
"Acronym": "Sb",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18,
5
],
"Group": "15",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 903.778,
"BoilingPoint": 1860,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>5s<sup>2</sup>5p<sup>3</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>121</sup>Sb",
"Mass": 120.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 57.21,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Antimony is a semi-metal. In its metallic form it is silvery, hard and brittle.",
"Uses": "<div>Antimony is used in the electronics industry to make some semiconductor devices, such as infrared detectors and diodes. </div><div><br/></div><div>It is alloyed with lead or other metals to improve their hardness and strength. A lead-antimony alloy is used in batteries. Other uses of antimony alloys include type metal (in printing presses), bullets and cable sheathing. </div><div><br/></div><div>Antimony compounds are used to make flame-retardant materials, paints, enamels, glass and pottery.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.06,
"CovalentRadius": 1.4,
"ElectronAffinity": 100.924,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.05,
"IonisationEnergies": [
830.583,
1604.55,
2441.1,
4264.7,
5403,
10420
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>121</sup>Sb",
"Mass": 120.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 57.21,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>123</sup>Sb",
"Mass": 122.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 42.79,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "The name derives from the Greek 'anti - monos', meaning not alone",
"DiscoveredWhen": "approx 1600BC"
},
{
"Number": 52,
"Type": "Metalloid",
"Mass": 127.6,
"Name": "Tellurium",
"Acronym": "Te",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18,
6
],
"Group": "16",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 722.66,
"BoilingPoint": 1261,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>5s<sup>2</sup>5p<sup>4</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>130</sup>Te",
"Mass": 129.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 34.08,
"HalfLife": [
"8 x 10<sup>20</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A semi-metal usually obtained as a grey powder.",
"Uses": "<div>Tellurium is used in alloys, mostly with copper and stainless steel, to improve their machinability. When added to lead it makes it more resistant to acids and improves its strength and hardness. </div><div><br/></div><div>Tellurium has been used to vulcanise rubber, to tint glass and ceramics, in solar cells, in rewritable CDs and DVDs and as a catalyst in oil refining. It can be doped with silver, gold, copper or tin in semiconductor applications.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.06,
"CovalentRadius": 1.37,
"ElectronAffinity": 190.161,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.1,
"IonisationEnergies": [
869.294,
1794.6,
2697.73,
3609.52,
5668.51,
6821.5,
13218
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>120</sup>Te",
"Mass": 119.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.09,
"HalfLife": [
"1.9 x 10<sup>17</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β+EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>122</sup>Te",
"Mass": 121.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 2.55,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>123</sup>Te",
"Mass": 122.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.89,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt 9.2 x 10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>124</sup>Te",
"Mass": 123.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 4.74,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>125</sup>Te",
"Mass": 124.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.07,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>126</sup>Te",
"Mass": 125.903,
"NaturalAbundance": 18.84,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>128</sup>Te",
"Mass": 127.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 31.74,
"HalfLife": [
"2.2 x 10<sup>24</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>130</sup>Te",
"Mass": 129.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 34.08,
"HalfLife": [
"8 x 10<sup>20</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin 'tellus', meaning Earth.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1783"
},
{
"Number": 53,
"Type": "Nonmetal",
"Mass": 126.9,
"Name": "Iodine",
"Acronym": "I",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18,
7
],
"Group": "17",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 386.9,
"BoilingPoint": 457.6,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>5s<sup>2</sup>5p<sup>5</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>127</sup>I",
"Mass": 126.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A black, shiny, crystalline solid. When heated, iodine sublimes to form a purple vapour.",
"Uses": "<div>Photography was the first commercial use for iodine after Louis Daguerre, in 1839, invented a technique for producing images on a piece of metal. These images were called daguerreotypes.</div><div><br/></div><div>Today, iodine has many commercial uses. Iodide salts are used in pharmaceuticals and disinfectants, printing inks and dyes, catalysts, animal feed supplements and photographic chemicals. Iodine is also used to make polarising filters for LCD displays.</div><div><br/></div><div>Iodide is added in small amounts to table salt, in order to avoid iodine deficiency affecting the thyroid gland. The radioactive isotope iodine-131 is sometimes used to treat cancerous thyroid glands.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.98,
"CovalentRadius": 1.36,
"ElectronAffinity": 295.152,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.66,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1008.393,
1845.89,
3184
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>127</sup>I",
"Mass": 126.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Bernard Courtois",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'iodes' meaning violet.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1811"
},
{
"Number": 54,
"Type": "Noble",
"Mass": 131.29,
"Name": "Xenon",
"Acronym": "Xe",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18,
8
],
"Group": "18",
"Period": 5,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Gas",
"MeltingPoint": 161.4,
"BoilingPoint": 165.051,
"Orbitals": "[Kr] 4d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>5s<sup>2</sup>5p<sup>6</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>132</sup>Xe",
"Mass": 131.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 26.9086,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A colourless, odourless gas. It is very unreactive.",
"Uses": "<div>Xenon is used in certain specialised light sources. It produces a beautiful blue glow when excited by an electrical discharge. Xenon lamps have applications as high-speed electronic flash bulbs used by photographers, sunbed lamps and bactericidal lamps used in food preparation and processing. Xenon lamps are also used in ruby lasers.</div><div><br/></div><div>Xenon ion propulsion systems are used by several satellites to keep them in orbit, and in some other spacecraft.</div><div><br/></div><div>Xenon difluoride is used to etch silicon microprocessors. It is also used in the manufacture of 5-fluorouracil, a drug used to treat certain types of cancer.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.16,
"CovalentRadius": 1.36,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.6,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1170.352,
2023.78,
3099.399
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>124</sup>Xe",
"Mass": 123.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.0952,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt 10<sup>17</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>126</sup>Xe",
"Mass": 125.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.089,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>128</sup>Xe",
"Mass": 127.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 1.9102,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>129</sup>Xe",
"Mass": 128.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 26.4006,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>130</sup>Xe",
"Mass": 129.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 4.071,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>131</sup>Xe",
"Mass": 130.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 21.2324,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>132</sup>Xe",
"Mass": 131.904,
"NaturalAbundance": 26.9086,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>134</sup>Xe",
"Mass": 133.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 10.4357,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt 1.1 x 10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>136</sup>Xe",
"Mass": 135.907,
"NaturalAbundance": 8.8573,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt 8.5 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Sir William Ramsay and Morris Travers",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'xenos' meaning stranger.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1898"
},
{
"Number": 55,
"Type": "Alkali",
"Mass": 132.91,
"Name": "Caesium",
"Acronym": "Cs",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18,
8,
1
],
"Group": "1",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 301.7,
"BoilingPoint": 944,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 6s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>133</sup>Cs",
"Mass": 132.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Caesium is a soft, gold-coloured metal that is quickly attacked by air and reacts explosively in water.",
"Uses": "<div>The most common use for caesium compounds is as a drilling fluid. They are also used to make special optical glass, as a catalyst promoter, in vacuum tubes and in radiation monitoring equipment.</div><div><br/></div><div>One of its most important uses is in the ‘caesium clock’ (atomic clock). These clocks are a vital part of the internetand mobile phone networks, as well as Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites. They give the standard measure of time: the electron resonance frequency of the caesium atom is 9,192,631,770 cycles per second. Some caesium clocks are accurate to 1 second in 15 million years.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 3.43,
"CovalentRadius": 2.38,
"ElectronAffinity": 45.505,
"ElectronNegativity": 0.79,
"IonisationEnergies": [
375.705,
2234.353
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>133</sup>Cs",
"Mass": 132.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from the Latin 'caesius', meaning sky blue, and derived from its flame colour.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1860"
},
{
"Number": 56,
"Type": "Alkaline",
"Mass": 137.33,
"Name": "Barium",
"Acronym": "Ba",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18,
8,
2
],
"Group": "2",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1000,
"BoilingPoint": 2118,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>138</sup>Ba",
"Mass": 137.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 71.698,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Barium is a soft, silvery metal that rapidly tarnishes in air and reacts with water.",
"Uses": "<div>Barium is not an extensively used element. Most is used in drilling fluids for oil and gas wells. It is also used in paint and in glassmaking.</div><div><br/></div><div>All barium compounds are toxic; however, barium sulfate is insoluble and so can be safely swallowed. A suspension of barium sulfate is sometimes given to patients suffering from digestive disorders. This is a ‘barium meal’ or ‘barium enema’. Barium is a heavy element and scatters X-rays, so as it passes through the body the stomach and intestines can be distinguished on an X-ray. </div><div><br/></div><div>Barium carbonate has been used in the past as a rat poison. Barium nitrate gives fireworks a green colour.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.68,
"CovalentRadius": 2.06,
"ElectronAffinity": 13.954,
"ElectronNegativity": 0.89,
"IonisationEnergies": [
502.849,
965.223
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>130</sup>Ba",
"Mass": 129.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.106,
"HalfLife": [
"2.2 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β+β+"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>132</sup>Ba",
"Mass": 131.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.101,
"HalfLife": [
"1.3 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>134</sup>Ba",
"Mass": 133.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 2.417,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>135</sup>Ba",
"Mass": 134.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 6.592,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>136</sup>Ba",
"Mass": 135.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.854,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>137</sup>Ba",
"Mass": 136.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 11.232,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>138</sup>Ba",
"Mass": 137.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 71.698,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Humphry Davy",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from the Greek 'barys', meaning heavy.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1808"
},
{
"Number": 72,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 178.49,
"Name": "Hafnium",
"Acronym": "Hf",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
10,
2
],
"Group": "4",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2506,
"BoilingPoint": 4873,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>2</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>177</sup>Hf",
"Mass": 176.943,
"NaturalAbundance": 18.6,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>178</sup>Hf",
"Mass": 177.944,
"NaturalAbundance": 27.28,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>180</sup>Hf",
"Mass": 179.947,
"NaturalAbundance": 35.08,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A shiny, silvery metal that resists corrosion and can be drawn into wires.",
"Uses": "<div>Hafnium is a good absorber of neutrons and is used to make control rods, such as those found in nuclear submarines. It also has a very high melting point and because of this is used in plasma welding torches. </div><div><br/></div><div>Hafnium has been successfully alloyed with several metals including iron, titanium and niobium. </div><div><br/></div><div>Hafnium oxide is used as an electrical insulator in microchips, while hafnium catalysts have been used in polymerisation reactions.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.23,
"CovalentRadius": 1.64,
"ElectronAffinity": 1.351,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.3,
"IonisationEnergies": [
658.519,
1447,
2248.1,
3215.86
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>174</sup>Hf",
"Mass": 173.94,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.16,
"HalfLife": [
"2.0 x 10<sup>15</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"<br>"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>176</sup>Hf",
"Mass": 175.941,
"NaturalAbundance": 5.26,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>177</sup>Hf",
"Mass": 176.943,
"NaturalAbundance": 18.6,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>178</sup>Hf",
"Mass": 177.944,
"NaturalAbundance": 27.28,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>179</sup>Hf",
"Mass": 178.946,
"NaturalAbundance": 13.62,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>180</sup>Hf",
"Mass": 179.947,
"NaturalAbundance": 35.08,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "George Charles de Hevesy and Dirk Coster",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin name for Copenhagen, 'Hafnia'",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1923"
},
{
"Number": 73,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 180.95,
"Name": "Tantalum",
"Acronym": "Ta",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
11,
2
],
"Group": "5",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 3290,
"BoilingPoint": 5728,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>3</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>180</sup>Ta",
"Mass": 179.947,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.012,
"HalfLife": [
"3.65 x 10<sup>16</sup> y",
"4.5 x 10<sup>16</sup> y",
"&gt 2.0 x 10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"",
"β-",
"EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>181</sup>Ta",
"Mass": 180.948,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.988,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A shiny, silvery metal that is very resistant to corrosion.",
"Uses": "<div>One of the main uses of tantalum is in the production of electronic components. An oxide layer which forms on the surface of tantalum can act as an insulating (dielectric) layer. Because tantalum can be used to coat other metals with a very thin layer, a high capacitance can be achieved in a small volume. This makes tantalum capacitors attractive for portable electronics such as mobile phones.</div><div><br/></div><div>Tantalum causes no immune response in mammals, so has found wide use in the making of surgical implants. It can replace bone, for example in skull plates; as foil or wire it connects torn nerves; and as woven gauze it binds abdominal muscle. </div><div><br/></div><div>It is very resistant to corrosion and so is used in equipment for handling corrosive materials. It has also found uses as electrodes for neon lights, AC/DC rectifiers and in glass for special lenses.</div><div><br/></div><div>Tantalum alloys can be extremely strong and have been used for turbine blades, rocket nozzles and nose caps for supersonic aircraft. </div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.22,
"CovalentRadius": 1.58,
"ElectronAffinity": 31.068,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.5,
"IonisationEnergies": [
728.423
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>180</sup>Ta",
"Mass": 179.947,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.012,
"HalfLife": [
"3.65 x 10<sup>16</sup> y",
"4.5 x 10<sup>16</sup> y",
"&gt 2.0 x 10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"",
"β-",
"EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>181</sup>Ta",
"Mass": 180.948,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.988,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Anders Gustav Ekeberg",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the legendary Greek figure King Tantalus.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1802"
},
{
"Number": 74,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 183.84,
"Name": "Tungsten",
"Acronym": "W",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
12,
2
],
"Group": "6",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 3687,
"BoilingPoint": 5828,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>4</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>182</sup>W",
"Mass": 181.948,
"NaturalAbundance": 26.5,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 7.7 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>184</sup>W",
"Mass": 183.951,
"NaturalAbundance": 30.64,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 8.9 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>186</sup>W",
"Mass": 185.954,
"NaturalAbundance": 28.43,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 8.2 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A shiny, silvery-white metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Tungsten was used extensively for the filaments of old-style incandescent light bulbs, but these have been phased out in many countries. This is because they are not very energy efficient; they produce much more heat than light.</div><div><br/></div><div>Tungsten has the highest melting point of all metals and is alloyed with other metals to strengthen them. Tungsten and its alloys are used in many high-temperature applications, such as arc-welding electrodes and heating elements in high-temperature furnaces. </div><div><br/></div><div>Tungsten carbide is immensely hard and is very important to the metal-working, mining and petroleum industries. It is made by mixing tungsten powder and carbon powder and heating to 2200°C. It makes excellent cutting and drilling tools, including a new ‘painless’ dental drill which spins at ultra-high speeds. </div><div><br/></div><div>Calcium and magnesium tungstates are widely used in fluorescent lighting.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.18,
"CovalentRadius": 1.5,
"ElectronAffinity": 78.757,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.7,
"IonisationEnergies": [
758.764,
1553.4
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>180</sup>W",
"Mass": 179.947,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.12,
"HalfLife": [
"1.8 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>182</sup>W",
"Mass": 181.948,
"NaturalAbundance": 26.5,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 7.7 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>183</sup>W",
"Mass": 182.95,
"NaturalAbundance": 14.31,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 4.1 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>184</sup>W",
"Mass": 183.951,
"NaturalAbundance": 30.64,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 8.9 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>186</sup>W",
"Mass": 185.954,
"NaturalAbundance": 28.43,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 8.2 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Juan and Fausto Elhuyar<br>",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Swedish 'tung sten' meaning heavy stone.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1783"
},
{
"Number": 75,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 186.21,
"Name": "Rhenium",
"Acronym": "Re",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
13,
2
],
"Group": "7",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 3458,
"BoilingPoint": 5863,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>5</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>187</sup>Re",
"Mass": 186.956,
"NaturalAbundance": 62.6,
"HalfLife": [
"4.16 x 10<sup>10</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A metal with a very high melting point. &nbsp;Tungsten is the only metallic element with a higher melting point.",
"Uses": "<div>Rhenium is used as an additive to tungsten- and molybdenum-based alloys to give useful properties. These alloys are used for oven filaments and x-ray machines. It is also used as an electrical contact material as it resists wear and withstands arc corrosion. </div><div><br></div><div>Rhenium catalysts are extremely resistant to poisoning (deactivation) and are used for the hydrogenation of fine chemicals. Some rhenium is used in nickel alloys to make single-crystal turbine blades.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.16,
"CovalentRadius": 1.41,
"ElectronAffinity": 14.47,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.9,
"IonisationEnergies": [
755.82
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>185</sup>Re",
"Mass": 184.953,
"NaturalAbundance": 37.4,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>187</sup>Re",
"Mass": 186.956,
"NaturalAbundance": 62.6,
"HalfLife": [
"4.16 x 10<sup>10</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke and Otto Berg",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin name for the Rhine, 'Rhenus'.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1925"
},
{
"Number": 76,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 190.23,
"Name": "Osmium",
"Acronym": "Os",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
14,
2
],
"Group": "8",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 3306,
"BoilingPoint": 5281,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>6</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>192</sup>Os",
"Mass": 191.961,
"NaturalAbundance": 40.78,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A shiny, silver metal that resists corrosion. It is the densest of all the elements and is twice as dense as lead.",
"Uses": "Osmium has only a few uses. It is used to produce very hard alloys for fountain pen tips, instrument pivots, needles and electrical contacts. It is also used in the chemical industry as a catalyst.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.16,
"CovalentRadius": 1.36,
"ElectronAffinity": 106.1,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.2,
"IonisationEnergies": [
814.165
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>184</sup>Os",
"Mass": 183.952,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.02,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>186</sup>Os",
"Mass": 185.954,
"NaturalAbundance": 1.59,
"HalfLife": [
"2 x 10<sup>15</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>187</sup>Os",
"Mass": 186.956,
"NaturalAbundance": 1.96,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>188</sup>Os",
"Mass": 187.956,
"NaturalAbundance": 13.24,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>189</sup>Os",
"Mass": 188.958,
"NaturalAbundance": 16.15,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>190</sup>Os",
"Mass": 189.958,
"NaturalAbundance": 26.26,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>192</sup>Os",
"Mass": 191.961,
"NaturalAbundance": 40.78,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Smithson Tennant",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek word 'osme', meaning smell.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1803"
},
{
"Number": 77,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 192.22,
"Name": "Iridium",
"Acronym": "Ir",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
15,
2
],
"Group": "9",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2719,
"BoilingPoint": 4701,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>7</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>193</sup>Ir",
"Mass": 192.963,
"NaturalAbundance": 62.7,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Iridium is a hard, silvery metal. It is almost as unreactive as gold. It has a very high density and melting point.",
"Uses": "Iridium is the most corrosion-resistant material known. It is used in special alloys and forms an alloy with osmium, which is used for pen tips and compass bearings. It was used in making the standard metre bar, which is an alloy of 90% platinum and 10% iridium. It is also used for the contacts in spark plugs because of its high melting point and low reactivity.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.13,
"CovalentRadius": 1.32,
"ElectronAffinity": 150.884,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.2,
"IonisationEnergies": [
865.186
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>191</sup>Ir",
"Mass": 190.961,
"NaturalAbundance": 37.3,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>193</sup>Ir",
"Mass": 192.963,
"NaturalAbundance": 62.7,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Smithson Tennant",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek goddess of the rainbow, Iris.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1803"
},
{
"Number": 78,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 195.08,
"Name": "Platinum",
"Acronym": "Pt",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
17,
1
],
"Group": "10",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2041.4,
"BoilingPoint": 4098,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>9</sup>6s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>195</sup>Pt",
"Mass": 194.965,
"NaturalAbundance": 33.78,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A shiny, silvery-white metal as resistant to corrosion as gold.",
"Uses": "<div>Platinum is used extensively for jewellery. Its main use, however, is in catalytic converters for cars, trucks and buses. This accounts for about 50% of demand each year. Platinum is very effective at converting emissions from the vehicle’s engine into less harmful waste products. </div><div><br/></div><div>Platinum is used in the chemicals industry as a catalyst for the production of nitric acid, silicone and benzene. It is also used as a catalyst to improve the efficiency of fuel cells.</div><div><br/></div><div>The electronics industry uses platinum for computer hard disks and thermocouples. </div><div><br/></div><div>Platinum is also used to make optical fibres and LCDs, turbine blades, spark plugs, pacemakers and dental fillings.</div><div><br/></div><div>Platinum compounds are important chemotherapy drugs used to treat cancers.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.13,
"CovalentRadius": 1.3,
"ElectronAffinity": 205.321,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.2,
"IonisationEnergies": [
864.393,
1791.057
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>190</sup>Pt",
"Mass": 189.96,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.012,
"HalfLife": [
"4.5 x 10<sup>11</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>192</sup>Pt",
"Mass": 191.961,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.782,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>194</sup>Pt",
"Mass": 193.963,
"NaturalAbundance": 32.86,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>195</sup>Pt",
"Mass": 194.965,
"NaturalAbundance": 33.78,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>196</sup>Pt",
"Mass": 195.965,
"NaturalAbundance": 25.21,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>198</sup>Pt",
"Mass": 197.968,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.356,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Spanish 'platina', meaning little silver.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "Known to native South Americans before Columbus, and taken to Europe around 1750"
},
{
"Number": 79,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 196.97,
"Name": "Gold",
"Acronym": "Au",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
1
],
"Group": "11",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1337.33,
"BoilingPoint": 3109,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>6s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>197</sup>Au",
"Mass": 196.967,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft metal with a characteristic yellow colour. It is chemically unreactive, although it will dissolve in aqua regia (a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids).",
"Uses": "<div>Most mined gold is stored as bullion. It is also, however, used extensively in jewellery, either in its pure form or as an alloy. The term ‘carat’ indicates the amount of gold present in an alloy. 24-carat is pure gold, but it is very soft. 18- and 9-carat gold alloys are commonly used because they are more durable. </div><div><br/></div><div>The metal is also used for coinage, and has been used as standard for monetary systems in some countries. </div><div><br/></div><div>Gold can be beaten into very thin sheets (gold leaf) to be used in art, for decoration and as architectural ornament. Electroplating can be used to cover another metal with a very thin layer of gold. This is used in gears for watches, artificial limb joints, cheap jewellery and electrical connectors. It is ideal for protecting electrical copper components because it conducts electricity well and does not corrode (which would break the contact). Thin gold wires are used inside computer chips to produce circuits. </div><div><br/></div><div>Dentists sometimes use gold alloys in fillings, and a gold compound is used to treat some cases of arthritis. </div><div><br/></div><div>Gold nanoparticles are increasingly being used as industrial catalysts. Vinyl acetate, which is used to make PVA (for glue, paint and resin), is made using a gold catalyst.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.14,
"CovalentRadius": 1.3,
"ElectronAffinity": 222.749,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.4,
"IonisationEnergies": [
890.128,
1949
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>197</sup>Au",
"Mass": 196.967,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>198</sup>Au",
"Mass": 197.968,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2.695 d"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "The name is the Anglo-Saxon word for the metal and the symbol comes from the Latin ‘aurum’, gold.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "approx 3000BC"
},
{
"Number": 80,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": 200.59,
"Name": "Mercury",
"Acronym": "Hg",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
2
],
"Group": "12",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Liquid",
"MeltingPoint": 234.321,
"BoilingPoint": 629.769,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>202</sup>Hg",
"Mass": 201.971,
"NaturalAbundance": 29.86,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A liquid, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Mercury has fascinated people for millennia, as a heavy liquid metal. However, because of its toxicity, many uses of mercury are being phased out or are under review.</div><div><br/></div><div>It is now mainly used in the chemical industry as catalysts. It is also used in some electrical switches and rectifiers.</div><div><br/></div><div>Previously its major use was in the manufacture of sodium hydroxide and chlorine by electrolysis of brine. These plants will all be phased out by 2020. It was also commonly used in batteries, fluorescent lights, felt production, thermometers and barometers. Again, these uses have been phased out.</div><div><br/></div><div>Mercury easily forms alloys, called amalgams, with other metals such as gold, silver and tin. The ease with which it amalgamates with gold made it useful in recovering gold from its ores. Mercury amalgams were also used in dental fillings.</div><div><br/></div><div>Mercuric sulfide (vermilion) is a high-grade, bright-red paint pigment, but is very toxic so is now only used with great care.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.23,
"CovalentRadius": 1.32,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.9,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1007.066,
1809.756,
3299.8
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>196</sup>Hg",
"Mass": 195.966,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.15,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 2.5 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>198</sup>Hg",
"Mass": 197.967,
"NaturalAbundance": 9.97,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>199</sup>Hg",
"Mass": 198.968,
"NaturalAbundance": 16.87,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>200</sup>Hg",
"Mass": 199.968,
"NaturalAbundance": 23.1,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>201</sup>Hg",
"Mass": 200.97,
"NaturalAbundance": 13.18,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>202</sup>Hg",
"Mass": 201.971,
"NaturalAbundance": 29.86,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>204</sup>Hg",
"Mass": 203.973,
"NaturalAbundance": 6.87,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "Mercury is named after the planet, Mercury.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "approx 1500BC"
},
{
"Number": 81,
"Type": "Poor",
"Mass": 204.38,
"Name": "Thallium",
"Acronym": "Tl",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
3
],
"Group": "13",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 577,
"BoilingPoint": 1746,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>6p<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>205</sup>Tl",
"Mass": 204.974,
"NaturalAbundance": 70.48,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery-white metal that tarnishes easily.",
"Uses": "<div>The use of thallium is limited as it is a toxic element. Thallium sulfate was employed as a rodent killer – it is odourless and tasteless – but household use of this poison has been prohibited in most developed countries. </div><div><br/></div><div>Most thallium is used by the electronics industry in photoelectric cells. Thallium oxide is used to produce special glass with a high index of refraction, and also low melting glass that becomes fluid at about 125K.</div><div><br/></div><div>An alloy of mercury containing 8% thallium has a melting point 20°C lower than mercury alone. This can be used in low temperature thermometers and switches.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.96,
"CovalentRadius": 1.44,
"ElectronAffinity": 36.375,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.8,
"IonisationEnergies": [
589.351,
1971.032,
2878.16
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>203</sup>Tl",
"Mass": 202.972,
"NaturalAbundance": 29.52,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>205</sup>Tl",
"Mass": 204.974,
"NaturalAbundance": 70.48,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "William Crookes",
"OriginOfName": "Thallium is derived from the Greek 'thallos', meaning a green twig.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1861"
},
{
"Number": 82,
"Type": "Poor",
"Mass": 207.2,
"Name": "Lead",
"Acronym": "Pb",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
4
],
"Group": "14",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 600.612,
"BoilingPoint": 2022,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>6p<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>208</sup>Pb",
"Mass": 207.977,
"NaturalAbundance": 52.4,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt 2 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A dull, silvery-grey metal. It is soft and easily worked into sheets.",
"Uses": "<div>This easily worked and corrosion-resistant metal has been used for pipes, pewter and paint since Roman times. It has also been used in lead glazes for pottery and, in this century, insecticides, hair dyes and as an anti-knocking additive for petrol. All these uses have now been banned, replaced or discouraged as lead is known to be detrimental to health, particularly that of children. </div><div><br/></div><div>Lead is still widely used for car batteries, pigments, ammunition, cable sheathing, weights for lifting, weight belts for diving, lead crystal glass, radiation protection and in some solders. </div><div><br/></div><div>It is often used to store corrosive liquids. It is also sometimes used in architecture, for roofing and in stained glass windows.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.02,
"CovalentRadius": 1.45,
"ElectronAffinity": 35.121,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.8,
"IonisationEnergies": [
715.596,
1450.414,
3081.481,
4083.26,
6638.2
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>204</sup>Pb",
"Mass": 203.973,
"NaturalAbundance": 1.4,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>206</sup>Pb",
"Mass": 205.974,
"NaturalAbundance": 24.1,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>207</sup>Pb",
"Mass": 206.976,
"NaturalAbundance": 22.1,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>208</sup>Pb",
"Mass": 207.977,
"NaturalAbundance": 52.4,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt 2 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from the Anglo-Saxon word for the metal, 'lead'",
"DiscoveredWhen": "Ancient"
},
{
"Number": 83,
"Type": "Poor",
"Mass": 208.98,
"Name": "Bismuth",
"Acronym": "Bi",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
5
],
"Group": "15",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 544.556,
"BoilingPoint": 1837,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>6p<sup>3</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>209</sup>Bi",
"Mass": 208.98,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [
"1.9 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "Bismuth is a high-density, silvery, pink-tinged metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Bismuth metal is brittle and so it is usually mixed with other metals to make it useful. Its alloys with tin or cadmium have low melting points and are used in fire detectors and extinguishers, electric fuses and solders.</div><div><br/></div><div>Bismuth oxide is used as a yellow pigment for cosmetics and paints, while bismuth(III) chloride oxide (BiClO) gives a pearly effect to cosmetics. Basic bismuth carbonate is taken in tablet or liquid form for indigestion as ‘bismuth mixture’.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.07,
"CovalentRadius": 1.5,
"ElectronAffinity": 90.924,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.9,
"IonisationEnergies": [
702.944,
1611.595,
2466.17,
4370.8,
5403,
8519.7
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>209</sup>Bi",
"Mass": 208.98,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [
"1.9 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "-",
"OriginOfName": "The name come from the German 'Bisemutum' a corruption of 'Weisse Masse' meaning white mass.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "approx 1500"
},
{
"Number": 84,
"Type": "Poor",
"Mass": -209,
"Name": "Polonium",
"Acronym": "Po",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
6
],
"Group": "16",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 527,
"BoilingPoint": 1235,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>6p<sup>4</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>209</sup>Po",
"Mass": 208.982,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"128 y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>210</sup>Po",
"Mass": 209.983,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"138.4 d"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery-grey, radioactive semi-metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Polonium is an alpha-emitter, and is used as an alpha-particle source in the form of a thin film on a stainless steel disc. These are used in antistatic devices and for research purposes. </div><div><br/></div><div>A single gram of polonium will reach a temperature of 500°C as a result of the alpha radiation emitted. This makes it useful as a source of heat for space equipment. </div><div><br/></div><div>It can be mixed or alloyed with beryllium to provide a source of neutrons.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 1.97,
"CovalentRadius": 1.42,
"ElectronAffinity": 183.3,
"ElectronNegativity": 2,
"IonisationEnergies": [
811.828
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>209</sup>Po",
"Mass": 208.982,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"128 y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>210</sup>Po",
"Mass": 209.983,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"138.4 d"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Marie Curie",
"OriginOfName": "Polonium is named after Poland, the native country of Marie Curie, who first isolated the element.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1898"
},
{
"Number": 85,
"Type": "Metalloid",
"Mass": -210,
"Name": "Astatine",
"Acronym": "At",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
7
],
"Group": "17",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 573,
"BoilingPoint": 623,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>6p<sup>5</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>210</sup>At",
"Mass": 209.987,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"8.1 h",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC",
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>211</sup>At",
"Mass": 210.987,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"7.21 h",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC",
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "Astatine is a dangerously radioactive element.",
"Uses": "<div>There are currently no uses for astatine outside of research. The half-life of the most stable isotope is only 8 hours, and only tiny amounts have ever been produced. </div><div><br/></div><div>A mass spectrometer has been used to confirm that astatine behaves chemically like other halogens, particularly iodine.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.02,
"CovalentRadius": 1.48,
"ElectronAffinity": 270.2,
"ElectronNegativity": 2.2,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>210</sup>At",
"Mass": 209.987,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"8.1 h",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC",
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>211</sup>At",
"Mass": 210.987,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"7.21 h",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC",
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "<div>Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, Emilio Segrè<br></div>",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from the Greek 'astatos', meaning unstable.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1940"
},
{
"Number": 86,
"Type": "Noble",
"Mass": -222,
"Name": "Radon",
"Acronym": "Rn",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
8
],
"Group": "18",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Gas",
"MeltingPoint": 202,
"BoilingPoint": 211.5,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>6p<sup>6</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>211</sup>Rn",
"Mass": 210.991,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"14.6 h",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β+,EC",
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>220</sup>Rn",
"Mass": 220.011,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"55.6 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>222</sup>Rn",
"Mass": 222.018,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"3.823 d"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "Radon is a colourless and odourless gas. It is chemically inert, but radioactive.",
"Uses": "<div>Radon decays into radioactive polonium and alpha particles. This emitted radiation made radon useful in cancer therapy. Radon was used in some hospitals to treat tumours by sealing the gas in minute tubes, and implanting these into the tumour, treating the disease in situ. Other, safer treatments are now more commonly used.</div><div><br/></div><div>In some places, high concentrations of radon can build up indoors, escaping from the ground or from granite buildings. Home testing kits are available which can be sent away for analysis.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.2,
"CovalentRadius": 1.46,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
1037.073
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>211</sup>Rn",
"Mass": 210.991,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"14.6 h",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β+,EC",
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>220</sup>Rn",
"Mass": 220.011,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"55.6 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>222</sup>Rn",
"Mass": 222.018,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"3.823 d"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Friedrich Ernst Dorn",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from radium, as it was first detected as an emission from radium during radioactive decay.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1900"
},
{
"Number": 87,
"Type": "Alkali",
"Mass": -223,
"Name": "Francium",
"Acronym": "Fr",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
8,
1
],
"Group": "1",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 294,
"BoilingPoint": 923,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 7s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>223</sup>Fr",
"Mass": 223.02,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"22.0 m",
"<br>"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-",
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "An intensely radioactive metal.",
"Uses": "Francium has no uses, having a half life of only 22 minutes.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 3.48,
"CovalentRadius": 2.42,
"ElectronAffinity": 44.38,
"ElectronNegativity": 0.7,
"IonisationEnergies": [
392.96
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>223</sup>Fr",
"Mass": 223.02,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"22.0 m",
"<br>"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-",
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Marguerite Perey",
"OriginOfName": "Francium is named after France.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1939"
},
{
"Number": 88,
"Type": "Alkaline",
"Mass": -226,
"Name": "Radium",
"Acronym": "Ra",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
8,
2
],
"Group": "2",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "s",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 969,
"BoilingPoint": 1773,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>226</sup>Ra",
"Mass": 226.025,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"1599 y",
"&gt; 4 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, shiny and silvery radioactive metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Radium now has few uses, because it is so highly radioactive.</div><div><br/></div><div>Radium-223 is sometimes used to treat prostate cancer that has spread to the bones. Because bones contain calcium and radium is in the same group as calcium, it can be used to target cancerous bone cells. It gives off alpha particles that can kill the cancerous cells. </div><div><br/></div><div>Radium used to be used in luminous paints, for example in clock and watch dials. Although the alpha rays could not pass through the glass or metal of the watch casing, it is now considered to be too hazardous to be used in this way.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.83,
"CovalentRadius": 2.11,
"ElectronAffinity": 9.65,
"ElectronNegativity": 0.9,
"IonisationEnergies": [
509.29,
979.051
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>223</sup>Ra",
"Mass": 223.019,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"11.43 d"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>224</sup>Ra",
"Mass": 224.02,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"3.66 d"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>226</sup>Ra",
"Mass": 226.025,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"1599 y",
"&gt; 4 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>228</sup>Ra",
"Mass": 228.031,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"5.76 y",
"<br>"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-",
"βf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Pierre and Marie Curie",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin 'radius', meaning ray.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1898"
},
{
"Number": 104,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": -267,
"Name": "Rutherfordium",
"Acronym": "Rf",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
10,
2
],
"Group": "4",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>2</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>265</sup>Rf",
"Mass": 265.117,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"&#126 2 m"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A radioactive metal that does not occur naturally. Relatively few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.57,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
579
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>265</sup>Rf",
"Mass": 265.117,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"&#126 2 m"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Georgy Flerov and colleagues and at Dubna, near Moscow, Russia, and independently by Albert Ghiorso and colleagues at Berkeley, California, USA",
"OriginOfName": "Rutherfordium is named in honour of New Zealand Chemist Ernest Rutherford, one of the first to explain the structure of atoms.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1964"
},
{
"Number": 105,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": -268,
"Name": "Dubnium",
"Acronym": "Db",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
11,
2
],
"Group": "5",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>3</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>268</sup>Db",
"Mass": 268.126,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"1.2 d"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"fs, EC"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.49,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>268</sup>Db",
"Mass": 268.126,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"1.2 d"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"fs, EC"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Scientists at both Berkeley, California, USA, and Dubna, near Moscow, Russia",
"OriginOfName": "Dubnium is named for the Russian town Dubna.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1968-1970"
},
{
"Number": 106,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": -269,
"Name": "Seaborgium",
"Acronym": "Sg",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
12,
2
],
"Group": "6",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>4</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>271</sup>Sg",
"Mass": 271.134,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2 m",
"<br>"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A radioactive metal that does not occur naturally. Only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.43,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>271</sup>Sg",
"Mass": 271.134,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2 m",
"<br>"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Albert Ghiorso and colleagues",
"OriginOfName": "Seaborgium is named for Glenn T. Seaborg, who was instrumental in producing several transuranium elements.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1974"
},
{
"Number": 107,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": -270,
"Name": "Bohrium",
"Acronym": "Bh",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
13,
2
],
"Group": "7",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>5</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>272</sup>Bh",
"Mass": 272.138,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"&#126 10 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "Bohrium is a highly radioactive metal.",
"Uses": "At present, bohrium is of research interest only.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.41,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>272</sup>Bh",
"Mass": 272.138,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"&#126 10 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Peter Armbruster, Gottfried Münzenberg and colleagues",
"OriginOfName": "Bohrium is named for the Danish atomic physicist Niels Bohr",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1981"
},
{
"Number": 108,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": -277,
"Name": "Hassium",
"Acronym": "Hs",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
14,
2
],
"Group": "8",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>6</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>270</sup>Hs",
"Mass": 270.134,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"0.3 m"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.34,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>270</sup>Hs",
"Mass": 270.134,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"0.3 m"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Peter Armbruster, Gottfried Münzenberg",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the German state of Hesse where Hassium was first made.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1984"
},
{
"Number": 109,
"Type": "Other",
"Mass": -278,
"Name": "Meitnerium",
"Acronym": "Mt",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
15,
2
],
"Group": "9",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>7</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>276</sup>Mt",
"Mass": 276.152,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"~ 0.7 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.29,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>276</sup>Mt",
"Mass": 276.152,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"~ 0.7 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Peter Armbruster, Gottfried Münzenberg and colleagues",
"OriginOfName": "Meitnerium is named for the Austrian physicist Lise Meitner.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1982"
},
{
"Number": 110,
"Type": "Other",
"Mass": -281,
"Name": "Darmstadtium",
"Acronym": "Ds",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
17,
1
],
"Group": "10",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>9</sup>7s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>281</sup>Ds",
"Mass": 281.165,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"13 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.28,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>281</sup>Ds",
"Mass": 281.165,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"13 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "<div>Sigurd Hofmann, Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg</div>",
"OriginOfName": "Darmstadtium is named after Darmstadt, Germany, where the element was first produced.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1994"
},
{
"Number": 111,
"Type": "Other",
"Mass": -282,
"Name": "Roentgenium",
"Acronym": "Rg",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
17,
2
],
"Group": "11",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>7s<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>280</sup>Rg",
"Mass": 280.165,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"~ 3.6 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.21,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>280</sup>Rg",
"Mass": 280.165,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"~ 3.6 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg",
"OriginOfName": "The name roentgenium (Rg) was proposed by the GSI team in honour of the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, and was accepted as a permanent name on November 1, 2004",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1994"
},
{
"Number": 112,
"Type": "Transition",
"Mass": -285,
"Name": "Copernicium",
"Acronym": "Cn",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
18,
2
],
"Group": "12",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>285</sup>Cn",
"Mass": 285.177,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"~ 29 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made. It is thought to be unreactive and more like a noble gas than a metal.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.22,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>285</sup>Cn",
"Mass": 285.177,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"~ 29 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Sigurd Hofmann and colleagues",
"OriginOfName": "Copernicium is named for the Renaissance scientist Nicolaus Copernicus",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1996"
},
{
"Number": 113,
"Type": "Other",
"Mass": -286,
"Name": "Nihonium",
"Acronym": "Nh",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
18,
3
],
"Group": "13",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>7p<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>286</sup>Nh",
"Mass": 286.182,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.36,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>284</sup>Nh",
"Mass": 284.179,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"~ 0.48 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>286</sup>Nh",
"Mass": 286.182,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Scientists from RIKEN (The Institute of Physical and Chemical Research) in Japan",
"OriginOfName": "The name refers to the Japanese name for Japan.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "2004"
},
{
"Number": 114,
"Type": "Poor",
"Mass": -289,
"Name": "Flerovium",
"Acronym": "Fl",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
18,
4
],
"Group": "14",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<SUP>1</SUP><SUP>4</SUP>6d<SUP>1</SUP><SUP>0</SUP>7s<SUP>2</SUP>7p<SUP>2</SUP>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>289</sup>Fl",
"Mass": 289.19,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"~ 2.1 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.43,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>289</sup>Fl",
"Mass": 289.19,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"~ 2.1 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California, USA.",
"OriginOfName": "Named after the Russian physicist Georgy Flerov who founded the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research where the element was discovered.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1999"
},
{
"Number": 115,
"Type": "Other",
"Mass": -290,
"Name": "Moscovium",
"Acronym": "Mc",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
18,
5
],
"Group": "15",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>7p<sup>3</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>289</sup>Mc",
"Mass": 289.194,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.62,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>288</sup>Mc",
"Mass": 288.193,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"~ 0.09 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>289</sup>Mc",
"Mass": 289.194,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, USA, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, USA",
"OriginOfName": "The name refers to the Moscow region, where the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research is based.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "2010"
},
{
"Number": 116,
"Type": "Other",
"Mass": -293,
"Name": "Livermorium",
"Acronym": "Lv",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
18,
6
],
"Group": "16",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>7p<sup>4</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<SUP>293</SUP>Lv",
"Mass": 293,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"0.06 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.75,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<SUP>293</SUP>Lv",
"Mass": 293,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"0.06 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California, USA.",
"OriginOfName": "Named after the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "2000"
},
{
"Number": 117,
"Type": "Other",
"Mass": -294,
"Name": "Tennessine",
"Acronym": "Ts",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
18,
7
],
"Group": "17",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>7p<sup>5</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>294</sup>Ts",
"Mass": 294.21,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.65,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>292</sup>Ts",
"Mass": 292.207,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>294</sup>Ts",
"Mass": 294.21,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, USA, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, USA",
"OriginOfName": "The name refers to the US state of Tennessee.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "2010"
},
{
"Number": 118,
"Type": "Other",
"Mass": -294,
"Name": "Oganesson",
"Acronym": "Og",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
18,
8
],
"Group": "18",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "p",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": null,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6d<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>7p<sup>6</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>294</sup>Og",
"Mass": 294.214,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"0.9 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.",
"Uses": "At present, it is only used in research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": null,
"CovalentRadius": 1.57,
"ElectronAffinity": 5.403,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": []
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>294</sup>Og",
"Mass": 294.214,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"0.9 s"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, USA",
"OriginOfName": "The name recognises the Russian nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian for his contributions to transactinide element research.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "2006"
},
{
"Number": 57,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 138.91,
"Name": "Lanthanum",
"Acronym": "La",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
18,
9,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1193,
"BoilingPoint": 3737,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 5d<sup>1</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>139</sup>La",
"Mass": 138.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.91,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery-white metal. It rapidly tarnishes in air and burns easily when ignited.",
"Uses": "<div>Lanthanum metal has no commercial uses. However, its alloys have a variety of uses. A lanthanum-nickel alloy is used to store hydrogen gas for use in hydrogen-powered vehicles. Lanthanum is also found in the anode of nickel metal hydride batteries used in hybrid cars. </div><div><br/></div><div>Lanthanum is an important component of mischmetal alloy (about 20%). The best-known use for this alloy is in ‘flints’ for cigarette lighters. </div><div><br/></div><div>‘Rare earth’ compounds containing lanthanum are used extensively in carbon lighting applications, such as studio lighting and cinema projection. They increase the brightness and give an emission spectrum similar to sunlight.</div><div><br/></div><div>Lanthanum(III) oxide is used in making special optical glasses, as it improves the optical properties and alkali resistance of the glass. Lanthanum salts are used in catalysts for petroleum refining. </div><div><br/></div><div>The ion La3+ is used as a biological tracer for Ca2+, and radioactive lanthanum has been tested for use in treating cancer.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.43,
"CovalentRadius": 1.94,
"ElectronAffinity": 45.35,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.1,
"IonisationEnergies": [
538.089,
1067.031,
1850.328,
4819.44,
5943.5
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>138</sup>La",
"Mass": 137.907,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.09,
"HalfLife": [
"1.06 x 10<sup>11</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
""
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>139</sup>La",
"Mass": 138.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.91,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Carl Gustav Mosander",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'lanthanein', meaning to lie hidden.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1839"
},
{
"Number": 58,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 140.12,
"Name": "Cerium",
"Acronym": "Ce",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
19,
9,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1072,
"BoilingPoint": 3716,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup>5d<sup>1</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>140</sup>Ce",
"Mass": 139.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 88.45,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "Cerium is a grey metal. It is little used because it tarnishes easily, reacts with water and burns when heated.",
"Uses": "<div>Cerium is the major component of mischmetal alloy (just under 50%). The best-known use for this alloy is in ‘flints’ for cigarette lighters. This is because cerium will make sparks when struck. The only other element that does this is iron.</div><div><br/></div><div>Cerium(Ill) oxide has uses as a catalyst. It is used in the inside walls of self-cleaning ovens to prevent the build-up of cooking residues. It is also used in catalytic converters. Cerium(III) oxide nanoparticles are being studied as an additive for diesel fuel to help it burn more completely and reduce exhaust emissions. </div><div><br/></div><div>Cerium sulfide is a non-toxic compound that is a rich red colour. It is used as a pigment. </div><div><br/></div><div>Cerium is also used in flat-screen TVs, low-energy light bulbs and floodlights.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.42,
"CovalentRadius": 1.84,
"ElectronAffinity": 62.72,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.12,
"IonisationEnergies": [
534.403,
1046.87,
1948.811,
3546.608,
6324.61,
7487.3
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>136</sup>Ce",
"Mass": 135.907,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.185,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt 0.7 x 10<sup>14</sup> y",
"&gt 4.2 x 10<sup>15</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC EC",
"β- β-"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>138</sup>Ce",
"Mass": 137.906,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.251,
"HalfLife": [
">3.7 x 10<sup>14</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>140</sup>Ce",
"Mass": 139.905,
"NaturalAbundance": 88.45,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>142</sup>Ce",
"Mass": 141.909,
"NaturalAbundance": 11.114,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt 1.6 x 10<sup>17</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger",
"OriginOfName": "Cerium is named for the asteroid, Ceres, which in turn was named after the Roman God of agriculture. ",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1803"
},
{
"Number": 59,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 140.91,
"Name": "Praseodymium",
"Acronym": "Pr",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
21,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1204,
"BoilingPoint": 3793,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>3</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>141</sup>Pr",
"Mass": 140.908,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Praseodymium is used in a variety of alloys. The high-strength alloy it forms with magnesium is used in aircraft engines. Mischmetal is an alloy containing about 5% praseodymium and is used to make flints for cigarette lighters. Praseodymium is also used in alloys for permanent magnets.</div><div><br/></div><div>Along with other lanthanide elements, it is used in carbon arc electrodes for studio lighting and projection. </div><div><br/></div><div>Praseodymium salts are used to colour glasses, enamel and glazes an intense and unusually clean yellow. Praseodymium oxide is a component of didymium glass (along with neodymium). This glass is used in goggles used by welders and glassmakers, because it filters out the yellow light and infrared (heat) radiation.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.4,
"CovalentRadius": 1.9,
"ElectronAffinity": 92.819,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.13,
"IonisationEnergies": [
528.064,
1017.92,
2086.399,
3761,
5550.8
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>141</sup>Pr",
"Mass": 140.908,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Carl Auer von Welsbach",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'prasios didymos' meaning green twin.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1885"
},
{
"Number": 60,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 144.24,
"Name": "Neodymium",
"Acronym": "Nd",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
22,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1289,
"BoilingPoint": 3347,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>4</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>142</sup>Nd",
"Mass": 141.908,
"NaturalAbundance": 27.2,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery-white metal. It rapidly tarnishes in air.",
"Uses": "<div>The most important use for neodymium is in an alloy with iron and boron to make very strong permanent magnets. This discovery, in 1983, made it possible to miniaturise many electronic devices, including mobile phones, microphones, loudspeakers and electronic musical instruments. These magnets are also used in car windscreen wipers and wind turbines.</div><div><br/></div><div>Neodymium is a component, along with praseodymium, of didymium glass. This is a special glass for goggles used during glass blowing and welding. The element colours glass delicate shades of violet, wine-red and grey. Neodymium is also used in the glass for tanning booths, since it transmits the tanning UV rays but not the heating infrared rays. </div><div><br/></div><div>Neodymium glass is used to make lasers. These are used as laser pointers, as well as in eye surgery, cosmetic surgery and for the treatment of skin cancers. </div><div><br/></div><div>Neodymium oxide and nitrate are used as catalysts in polymerisation reactions.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.39,
"CovalentRadius": 1.88,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.14,
"IonisationEnergies": [
533.082,
1034.32,
2132.3,
3898
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>142</sup>Nd",
"Mass": 141.908,
"NaturalAbundance": 27.2,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>143</sup>Nd",
"Mass": 142.91,
"NaturalAbundance": 12.2,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>144</sup>Nd",
"Mass": 143.91,
"NaturalAbundance": 23.8,
"HalfLife": [
"2.1 x 10<sup>15</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"a"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>145</sup>Nd",
"Mass": 144.913,
"NaturalAbundance": 8.3,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>146</sup>Nd",
"Mass": 145.913,
"NaturalAbundance": 17.2,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>148</sup>Nd",
"Mass": 147.917,
"NaturalAbundance": 5.8,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>150</sup>Nd",
"Mass": 149.921,
"NaturalAbundance": 5.6,
"HalfLife": [
"1.33 x 10<sup>20</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Carl Auer von Welsbach",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'neos didymos' meaning new twin.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1885"
},
{
"Number": 61,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": -145,
"Name": "Promethium",
"Acronym": "Pm",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
23,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1315,
"BoilingPoint": 3273,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>5</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>145</sup>Pm",
"Mass": 144.913,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"17.7 y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>147</sup>Pm",
"Mass": 146.915,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2.623 y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A radioactive metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Most promethium is used only in research. A little promethium is used in specialised atomic batteries. These are roughly the size of a drawing pin and are used for pacemakers, guided missiles and radios. The radioactive decay of promethium is used to make a phosphor give off light and this light is converted into electricity by a solar cell.</div><div><br/></div><div>Promethium can also be used as a source of x-rays and radioactivity in measuring instruments.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.38,
"CovalentRadius": 1.86,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
538.581,
1051.7,
2151.6,
3965.5
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>145</sup>Pm",
"Mass": 144.913,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"17.7 y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>147</sup>Pm",
"Mass": 146.915,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2.623 y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Jacob .A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin, and Charles D. Coryell",
"OriginOfName": "Promethium is named after Prometheus of Greek mythology who stole fire from the Gods and gave it to humans.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1945"
},
{
"Number": 62,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 150.36,
"Name": "Samarium",
"Acronym": "Sm",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
24,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1345,
"BoilingPoint": 2067,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>6</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>152</sup>Sm",
"Mass": 151.92,
"NaturalAbundance": 26.75,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery-white metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Samarium-cobalt magnets are much more powerful than iron magnets. They remain magnetic at high temperatures and so are used in microwave applications. They enabled the miniaturisation of electronic devices like headphones, and the development of personal stereos. However, neodymium magnets are now more commonly used instead.</div><div><br/></div><div>Samarium is used to dope calcium chloride crystals for use in optical lasers. It is also used in infrared absorbing glass and as a neutron absorber in nuclear reactors. Samarium oxide finds specialised use in glass and ceramics. In common with other lanthanides, samarium is used in carbon arc lighting for studio lighting and projection.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.36,
"CovalentRadius": 1.85,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.17,
"IonisationEnergies": [
544.534,
1068.09,
2257.8,
3994.5
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>144</sup>Sm",
"Mass": 143.912,
"NaturalAbundance": 3.07,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>147</sup>Sm",
"Mass": 146.915,
"NaturalAbundance": 14.99,
"HalfLife": [
"1.06 x 10<sup>11</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"a"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>148</sup>Sm",
"Mass": 147.915,
"NaturalAbundance": 11.24,
"HalfLife": [
"7 x 10<sup>15</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"a"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>149</sup>Sm",
"Mass": 148.917,
"NaturalAbundance": 13.82,
"HalfLife": [
"10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"a"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>150</sup>Sm",
"Mass": 149.917,
"NaturalAbundance": 7.38,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>152</sup>Sm",
"Mass": 151.92,
"NaturalAbundance": 26.75,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>154</sup>Sm",
"Mass": 153.922,
"NaturalAbundance": 22.75,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from samarskite, the name of the mineral from which it was first isolated.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1879"
},
{
"Number": 63,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 151.96,
"Name": "Europium",
"Acronym": "Eu",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
25,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1095,
"BoilingPoint": 1802,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>7</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>153</sup>Eu",
"Mass": 152.921,
"NaturalAbundance": 52.19,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery metal that tarnishes quickly and reacts with water.",
"Uses": "<div>Europium is used in the printing of euro banknotes. It glows red under UV light, and forgeries can be detected by the lack of this red glow.</div><div><br/></div><div>Low-energy light bulbs contain a little europium to give a more natural light, by balancing the blue (cold) light with a little red (warm) light.</div><div><br/></div><div>Europium is excellent at absorbing neutrons, making it valuable in control rods for nuclear reactors. </div><div><br/></div><div>Europium-doped plastic has been used as a laser material. It is also used in making thin super-conducting alloys.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.35,
"CovalentRadius": 1.83,
"ElectronAffinity": 83.363,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
547.109,
1085.46,
2404.41,
4119.9
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>151</sup>Eu",
"Mass": 150.92,
"NaturalAbundance": 47.81,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 1.7x10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"<br>"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>153</sup>Eu",
"Mass": 152.921,
"NaturalAbundance": 52.19,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Eugène-Anatole Demarçay",
"OriginOfName": "Europium is named after Europe",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1901"
},
{
"Number": 64,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 157.25,
"Name": "Gadolinium",
"Acronym": "Gd",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
25,
9,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1586,
"BoilingPoint": 3546,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>7</sup>5d<sup>1</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>158</sup>Gd",
"Mass": 157.924,
"NaturalAbundance": 24.84,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery metal that reacts with oxygen and water.",
"Uses": "<div>Gadolinium has useful properties in alloys. As little as 1% gadolinium can improve the workability of iron and chromium alloys, and their resistance to high temperatures and oxidation. It is also used in alloys for making magnets, electronic components and data storage disks. </div><div><br/></div><div>Its compounds are useful in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), particularly in diagnosing cancerous tumours. </div><div><br/></div><div>Gadolinium is excellent at absorbing neutrons, and so is used in the core of nuclear reactors.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.34,
"CovalentRadius": 1.82,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.2,
"IonisationEnergies": [
593.366,
1166.51,
1990.49,
4245
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>152</sup>Gd",
"Mass": 151.92,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.2,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>154</sup>Gd",
"Mass": 153.921,
"NaturalAbundance": 2.18,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>155</sup>Gd",
"Mass": 154.923,
"NaturalAbundance": 14.8,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>156</sup>Gd",
"Mass": 155.922,
"NaturalAbundance": 20.47,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>157</sup>Gd",
"Mass": 156.924,
"NaturalAbundance": 15.65,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>158</sup>Gd",
"Mass": 157.924,
"NaturalAbundance": 24.84,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>160</sup>Gd",
"Mass": 159.927,
"NaturalAbundance": 21.86,
"HalfLife": [
"&gt; 1.9 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac",
"OriginOfName": "Gadolinium was named in honour of Johan Gadolin.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1880"
},
{
"Number": 65,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 158.93,
"Name": "Terbium",
"Acronym": "Tb",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
27,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1632,
"BoilingPoint": 3503,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>9</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>159</sup>Tb",
"Mass": 158.925,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Terbium is used to dope calcium fluoride, calcium tungstate and strontium molybdate, all used in solid-state devices. It is also used in low-energy lightbulbs and mercury lamps. It has been used to improve the safety of medical x-rays by allowing the same quality image to be produced with a much shorter exposure time. Terbium salts are used in laser devices. </div><div><br/></div><div>An alloy of terbium, dysprosium and iron lengthens and shortens in a magnetic field. This effect forms the basis of loudspeakers that sit on a flat surface, such as a window pane, which then acts as the speaker.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.33,
"CovalentRadius": 1.81,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
565.771,
1111.51,
2113.99,
3839.15
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>159</sup>Tb",
"Mass": 158.925,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Carl Gustav Mosander",
"OriginOfName": "Terbium was named after Ytterby, Sweden.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1843"
},
{
"Number": 66,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 162.5,
"Name": "Dysprosium",
"Acronym": "Dy",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
28,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1685,
"BoilingPoint": 2840,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>164</sup>Dy",
"Mass": 163.929,
"NaturalAbundance": 28.26,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A bright, silvery metallic element.",
"Uses": "<div>As a pure metal it is little used, because it reacts readily with water and air. Dysprosium’s main use is in alloys for neodymium-based magnets. This is because it is resistant to demagnetisation at high temperatures. This property is important for magnets used in motors or generators. These magnets are used in wind turbines and electrical vehicles, so demand for dysprosium is growing rapidly. </div><div><br/></div><div>Dysprosium iodide is used in halide discharge lamps. The salt enables the lamps to give out a very intense white light.</div><div><br/></div><div>A dysprosium oxide-nickel cermet (a composite material of ceramic and metal) is used in nuclear reactor control rods. It readily absorbs neutrons, and does not swell or contract when bombarded with neutrons for long periods.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.31,
"CovalentRadius": 1.8,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.22,
"IonisationEnergies": [
573.017,
1125.98,
2199.9,
4001.25
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>156</sup>Dy",
"Mass": 155.924,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.056,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>158</sup>Dy",
"Mass": 157.924,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.095,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>160</sup>Dy",
"Mass": 159.925,
"NaturalAbundance": 2.329,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>161</sup>Dy",
"Mass": 160.927,
"NaturalAbundance": 18.889,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>162</sup>Dy",
"Mass": 161.927,
"NaturalAbundance": 25.475,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>163</sup>Dy",
"Mass": 162.929,
"NaturalAbundance": 24.896,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>164</sup>Dy",
"Mass": 163.929,
"NaturalAbundance": 28.26,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'dysprositos', meaning hard to get.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1886"
},
{
"Number": 67,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 164.93,
"Name": "Holmium",
"Acronym": "Ho",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
29,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1745,
"BoilingPoint": 2973,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>165</sup>Ho",
"Mass": 164.93,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A bright, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "Holmium can absorb neutrons, so it is used in nuclear reactors to keep a chain reaction under control. Its alloys are used in some magnets.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.3,
"CovalentRadius": 1.79,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.23,
"IonisationEnergies": [
580.987,
1138.5,
2203.73,
4100.6
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>165</sup>Ho",
"Mass": 164.93,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Per Teodor Cleve at Uppsala, Sweden and independently by Marc Delafontaine and Louis Soret in Geneva, Switzerland",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Latin name for Stockholm, 'Holmia'.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1878"
},
{
"Number": 68,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 167.26,
"Name": "Erbium",
"Acronym": "Er",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
30,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1802,
"BoilingPoint": 3141,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>2</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>166</sup>Er",
"Mass": 165.93,
"NaturalAbundance": 33.503,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery metallic element.",
"Uses": "<div>Erbium finds little use as a metal because it slowly tarnishes in air and is attacked by water. </div><div><br/></div><div>When alloyed with metals such as vanadium, erbium lowers their hardness and improves their workability.</div><div><br/></div><div>Erbium oxide is occasionally used in infrared absorbing glass, for example safety glasses for welders and metal workers. When erbium is added to glass it gives the glass a pink tinge. It is used to give colour to some sunglasses and imitation gems.</div><div><br/></div><div>Broadband signals, carried by fibre optic cables, are amplified by including erbium in the glass fibre.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.29,
"CovalentRadius": 1.77,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.24,
"IonisationEnergies": [
589.304,
1151.07,
2194.08,
4119.9
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>162</sup>Er",
"Mass": 161.929,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.139,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>164</sup>Er",
"Mass": 163.929,
"NaturalAbundance": 1.601,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>166</sup>Er",
"Mass": 165.93,
"NaturalAbundance": 33.503,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>167</sup>Er",
"Mass": 166.932,
"NaturalAbundance": 22.869,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>168</sup>Er",
"Mass": 167.932,
"NaturalAbundance": 26.978,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>170</sup>Er",
"Mass": 169.935,
"NaturalAbundance": 14.91,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Carl Gustav Mosander",
"OriginOfName": "Erbium is named after Ytterby, Sweden, ",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1843"
},
{
"Number": 69,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 168.93,
"Name": "Thulium",
"Acronym": "Tm",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
31,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1818,
"BoilingPoint": 2223,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>3</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>169</sup>Tm",
"Mass": 168.934,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A bright, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "When irradiated in a nuclear reactor, thulium produces an isotope that emits x-rays. A ‘button’ of this isotope is used to make a lightweight, portable x-ray machine for medical use. Thulium is used in lasers with surgical applications.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.27,
"CovalentRadius": 1.77,
"ElectronAffinity": 99.283,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.25,
"IonisationEnergies": [
596.695,
1162.65,
2284.77,
4119.9
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>169</sup>Tm",
"Mass": 168.934,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Per Teodor Cleve",
"OriginOfName": "The name comes from Thule, the ancient name for Scandinavia.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1879"
},
{
"Number": 70,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 173.05,
"Name": "Ytterbium",
"Acronym": "Yb",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1097,
"BoilingPoint": 1469,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>172</sup>Yb",
"Mass": 171.936,
"NaturalAbundance": 21.68,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>173</sup>Yb",
"Mass": 172.938,
"NaturalAbundance": 16.1,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>174</sup>Yb",
"Mass": 173.939,
"NaturalAbundance": 32.03,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A soft, silvery metal. It slowly oxidises in air, forming a protective surface layer.",
"Uses": "Ytterbium is beginning to find a variety of uses, such as in memory devices and tuneable lasers. It can also be used as an industrial catalyst and is increasingly being used to replace other catalysts considered to be too toxic and polluting.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.26,
"CovalentRadius": 1.78,
"ElectronAffinity": -1.93,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
603.435,
1174.805,
2416.96,
4202.9
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>168</sup>Yb",
"Mass": 167.934,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.12,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>170</sup>Yb",
"Mass": 169.935,
"NaturalAbundance": 2.98,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>171</sup>Yb",
"Mass": 170.936,
"NaturalAbundance": 14.09,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>172</sup>Yb",
"Mass": 171.936,
"NaturalAbundance": 21.68,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>173</sup>Yb",
"Mass": 172.938,
"NaturalAbundance": 16.1,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>174</sup>Yb",
"Mass": 173.939,
"NaturalAbundance": 32.03,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>176</sup>Yb",
"Mass": 175.943,
"NaturalAbundance": 13,
"HalfLife": [
"10<sup>26</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-β-"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac",
"OriginOfName": "Ytterbium is named after Ytterby, Sweden.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1878"
},
{
"Number": 71,
"Type": "Lanthanoid",
"Mass": 174.97,
"Name": "Lutetium",
"Acronym": "Lu",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
9,
2
],
"Group": "Lanthanides",
"Period": 6,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1936,
"BoilingPoint": 3675,
"Orbitals": "[Xe] 4f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>5d<sup>1</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>175</sup>Lu",
"Mass": 174.941,
"NaturalAbundance": 97.4,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery-white, hard, dense metal.",
"Uses": "Lutetium is little used outside research. One of its few commercial uses is as a catalyst for cracking hydrocarbons in oil refineries.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.24,
"CovalentRadius": 1.74,
"ElectronAffinity": 32.81,
"ElectronNegativity": 1,
"IonisationEnergies": [
523.516,
1341.1,
2022.275,
4365.96,
6445.2
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>175</sup>Lu",
"Mass": 174.941,
"NaturalAbundance": 97.4,
"HalfLife": [],
"ModeOfDecay": []
},
{
"Name": "<sup>176</sup>Lu",
"Mass": 175.943,
"NaturalAbundance": 2.6,
"HalfLife": [
"3.73 x 10<sup>10</sup> y",
"<br>",
"<br>"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-",
"β+",
"EC"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Georges Urbain in Paris, France and independently by Charles James in New Hampshire, USA",
"OriginOfName": "The name derives from the Romans' name for Paris, 'Lutetia'.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1907"
},
{
"Number": 89,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -227,
"Name": "Actinium",
"Acronym": "Ac",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
9,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "d",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1323,
"BoilingPoint": 3473,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 6d<sup>1</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>227</sup>Ac",
"Mass": 227.028,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"21.77 y",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-",
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "Actinium is a soft, silvery-white radioactive metal. It glows blue in the dark because its intense radioactivity excites the air around it.",
"Uses": "Actinium is a very powerful source of alpha rays, but is rarely used outside research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.47,
"CovalentRadius": 2.01,
"ElectronAffinity": 33.77,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.1,
"IonisationEnergies": [
498.83,
1133.7
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>227</sup>Ac",
"Mass": 227.028,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"21.77 y",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-",
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Andrew Debierne",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'actinos', meaning a ray.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1899"
},
{
"Number": 90,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": 232.04,
"Name": "Thorium",
"Acronym": "Th",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
18,
10,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 2023,
"BoilingPoint": 5058,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 6d<sup>2</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>230</sup>Th",
"Mass": 230.033,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"7.56 x 10<sup>4</sup> y",
"&gt 2 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>232</sup>Th",
"Mass": 232.038,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [
"1.4 x 10<sup>10</sup> y",
"1.2 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A weakly radioactive, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Thorium is an important alloying agent in magnesium, as it imparts greater strength and creep resistance at high temperatures. Thorium oxide is used as an industrial catalyst.</div><div><br/></div><div>Thorium can be used as a source of nuclear power. It is about three times as abundant as uranium and about as abundant as lead, and there is probably more energy available from thorium than from both uranium and fossil fuels. India and China are in the process of developing nuclear power plants with thorium reactors, but this is still a very new technology. </div><div><br/></div><div>Thorium dioxide was formerly added to glass during manufacture to increase the refractive index, producing thoriated glass for use in high-quality camera lenses.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.45,
"CovalentRadius": 1.9,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.3,
"IonisationEnergies": [
608.504,
1148.2,
1930,
2778.8
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>230</sup>Th",
"Mass": 230.033,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"7.56 x 10<sup>4</sup> y",
"&gt 2 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>232</sup>Th",
"Mass": 232.038,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [
"1.4 x 10<sup>10</sup> y",
"1.2 x 10<sup>21</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Jöns Jacob Berzelius",
"OriginOfName": "Thorium is named after Thor, the Scandinavian god of war.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1829"
},
{
"Number": 91,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": 231.04,
"Name": "Protactinium",
"Acronym": "Pa",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
20,
9,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1845,
"BoilingPoint": 4273,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>2</sup>6d<sup>1</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>231</sup>Pa",
"Mass": 231.036,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [
"3.25 x 10<sup>4</sup> y",
"&gt 2 x 10<sup>17</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A silvery, radioactive metal.",
"Uses": "Protactinium is little used outside of research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.43,
"CovalentRadius": 1.84,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.5,
"IonisationEnergies": [
568.3
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>231</sup>Pa",
"Mass": 231.036,
"NaturalAbundance": 100,
"HalfLife": [
"3.25 x 10<sup>4</sup> y",
"&gt 2 x 10<sup>17</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Kasimir Fajans and Otto Göhring",
"OriginOfName": "The name is derived from the Greek 'protos', meaning first, as a prefix to the element actinium, which is produced through the radioactive decay of proactinium.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1913"
},
{
"Number": 92,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": 238.03,
"Name": "Uranium",
"Acronym": "U",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
21,
9,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1408,
"BoilingPoint": 4404,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>3</sup>6d<sup>1</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>234</sup>U",
"Mass": 234.041,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.0054,
"HalfLife": [
"2.453 x 10<sup>5</sup> y",
"1.5 x 10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>235</sup>U",
"Mass": 235.044,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.7204,
"HalfLife": [
"7.03 x 10<sup>8</sup> y",
"1.0 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>238</sup>U",
"Mass": 238.051,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.2742,
"HalfLife": [
"8.2 x 10<sup>15</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A radioactive, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Uranium is a very important element because it provides us with nuclear fuel used to generate electricity in nuclear power stations. It is also the major material from which other synthetic transuranium elements are made.</div><div><br/></div><div>Naturally occurring uranium consists of 99% uranium-238 and 1% uranium-235. Uranium-235 is the only naturally occurring fissionable fuel (a fuel that can sustain a chain reaction). Uranium fuel used in nuclear reactors is enriched with uranium-235. The chain reaction is carefully controlled using neutron-absorbing materials. The heat generated by the fuel is used to create steam to turn turbines and generate electrical power.</div><div><br/></div><div>In a breeder reactor uranium-238 captures neutrons and undergoes negative beta decay to become plutonium-239. This synthetic, fissionable element can also sustain a chain reaction.</div><div><br/></div><div>Uranium is also used by the military to power nuclear submarines and in nuclear weapons.</div><div><br/></div><div>Depleted uranium is uranium that has much less uranium-235 than natural uranium. It is considerably less radioactive than natural uranium. It is a dense metal that can be used as ballast for ships and counterweights for aircraft. It is also used in ammunition and armour.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.41,
"CovalentRadius": 1.83,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.7,
"IonisationEnergies": [
597.64,
1022.7
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>233</sup>U",
"Mass": 233.04,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"1.590 x 10<sup>5</sup> y",
"&gt; 2.7 x 10<sup>17</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>234</sup>U",
"Mass": 234.041,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.0054,
"HalfLife": [
"2.453 x 10<sup>5</sup> y",
"1.5 x 10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>235</sup>U",
"Mass": 235.044,
"NaturalAbundance": 0.7204,
"HalfLife": [
"7.03 x 10<sup>8</sup> y",
"1.0 x 10<sup>19</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>236</sup>U",
"Mass": 236.046,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2.342 x 10<sup>7</sup> y",
"2.5 x 10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>238</sup>U",
"Mass": 238.051,
"NaturalAbundance": 99.2742,
"HalfLife": [
"8.2 x 10<sup>15</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Martin Heinrich Klaproth",
"OriginOfName": "Uranium was named after the planet Uranus.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1789"
},
{
"Number": 93,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -237,
"Name": "Neptunium",
"Acronym": "Np",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
22,
9,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 917,
"BoilingPoint": 4175,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>4</sup>6d<sup>1</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>237</sup>Np",
"Mass": 237.048,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2.14 x 10<sup>6</sup> y",
"1 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A radioactive metal.",
"Uses": "Neptunium is little used outside research. The isotope neptunium-237 has been used in neutron detectors.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.39,
"CovalentRadius": 1.8,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.3,
"IonisationEnergies": [
604.548
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>236</sup>Np",
"Mass": 236.047,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"1.55 x 10<sup>5</sup> y",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC",
"β-"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>237</sup>Np",
"Mass": 237.048,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2.14 x 10<sup>6</sup> y",
"1 x 10<sup>18</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Edwin McMillan and Philip Abelson",
"OriginOfName": "Neptunium was named after the planet Neptune.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1940"
},
{
"Number": 94,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -244,
"Name": "Plutonium",
"Acronym": "Pu",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
24,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 913,
"BoilingPoint": 3501,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>6</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>238</sup>Pu",
"Mass": 238.05,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"87.7 y",
"4.75 x 10<sup>10</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>239</sup>Pu",
"Mass": 239.052,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2.410 x 10<sup>4</sup> y",
"8 x 10<sup>5</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>240</sup>Pu",
"Mass": 240.054,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"6.56 x 10<sup>3</sup> y",
"1.14 x 10<sup>11</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A radioactive, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Plutonium was used in several of the first atomic bombs, and is still used in nuclear weapons. The complete detonation of a kilogram of plutonium produces an explosion equivalent to over 10,000 tonnes of chemical explosive. </div><div><br/></div><div>Plutonium is also a key material in the development of nuclear power. It has been used as a source of energy on space missions, such as the Mars Curiosity Rover and the New Horizons spacecraft on its way to Pluto.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.43,
"CovalentRadius": 1.8,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": 1.3,
"IonisationEnergies": [
581.421,
1080.6
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>238</sup>Pu",
"Mass": 238.05,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"87.7 y",
"4.75 x 10<sup>10</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>239</sup>Pu",
"Mass": 239.052,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2.410 x 10<sup>4</sup> y",
"8 x 10<sup>5</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>240</sup>Pu",
"Mass": 240.054,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"6.56 x 10<sup>3</sup> y",
"1.14 x 10<sup>11</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>241</sup>Pu",
"Mass": 241.057,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"14.33 y",
"<br>",
"&gt; 6 x 10<sup>16</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β-",
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>242</sup>Pu",
"Mass": 242.059,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"3.75 x 10<sup>5</sup> y",
"6.77 x 10<sup>10</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>244</sup>Pu",
"Mass": 244.064,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"8.12 x 10<sup>7</sup> y",
"6.6 x 10<sup>10</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Glenn Seaborg and colleagues",
"OriginOfName": "Plutonium, is named after the then planet Pluto, following from the two previous elements uranium and neptunium.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1940"
},
{
"Number": 95,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -243,
"Name": "Americium",
"Acronym": "Am",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
25,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1449,
"BoilingPoint": 2284,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>7</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>241</sup>Am",
"Mass": 241.057,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"432.7 y",
"1.2 x 10<sup>14</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>243</sup>Am",
"Mass": 243.061,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"7.37 x 10<sup>3</sup> y",
"2 x 10<sup>14</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "Americium is a silvery, shiny radioactive metal.",
"Uses": "<div>Americium is commonly used in smoke alarms, but has few other uses. </div><div><br/></div><div>It has the potential to be used in spacecraft batteries in the future. Currently plutonium is used but availability is poor so alternatives are being considered.</div><div><br/></div><div>It is of interest as part of the decay sequence that occurs in nuclear power production.</div>",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.44,
"CovalentRadius": 1.73,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
576.384
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>241</sup>Am",
"Mass": 241.057,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"432.7 y",
"1.2 x 10<sup>14</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>243</sup>Am",
"Mass": 243.061,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"7.37 x 10<sup>3</sup> y",
"2 x 10<sup>14</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Glenn Seaborg and colleagues ",
"OriginOfName": "Americium is named for America where it was first made.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1944"
},
{
"Number": 96,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -247,
"Name": "Curium",
"Acronym": "Cm",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
25,
9,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1618,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>7</sup>6d<sup>1</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>243</sup>Cm",
"Mass": 243.061,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"29.1 y",
"5.5 x 10<sup>11</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>248</sup>Cm",
"Mass": 248.072,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"3.48 x 10<sup>5</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A radioactive metal that is silver in colour. It tarnishes rapidly in air.",
"Uses": "Curium has been used to provide power to electrical equipment used on space missions.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.45,
"CovalentRadius": 1.68,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
578.082
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>243</sup>Cm",
"Mass": 243.061,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"29.1 y",
"5.5 x 10<sup>11</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>244</sup>Cm",
"Mass": 244.063,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"18.1 y",
"1.32 x 10<sup>7</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>245</sup>Cm",
"Mass": 245.065,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"8.48 x 10<sup>3</sup> y",
"1.4 x 10<sup>12</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>246</sup>Cm",
"Mass": 246.067,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"4.76 x 10<sup>3</sup> y",
"1.8 x 10<sup>7</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>247</sup>Cm",
"Mass": 247.07,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"1.56 x 10<sup>7</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>248</sup>Cm",
"Mass": 248.072,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"3.48 x 10<sup>5</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Glenn Seaborg and colleagues",
"OriginOfName": "Curium is named in honour of Pierre and Marie Curie.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1944"
},
{
"Number": 97,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -247,
"Name": "Berkelium",
"Acronym": "Bk",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
27,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1259,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>9</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>247</sup>Bk",
"Mass": 247.07,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"1.43 x 10<sup>3</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>249</sup>Bk",
"Mass": 249.075,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"320 d",
"<br>",
"1.8 x 10<sup>9</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β",
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "Berkelium is a radioactive, silvery metal.",
"Uses": "Because it is so rare, berkelium has no commercial or technological use at present.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.44,
"CovalentRadius": 1.68,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
598.007
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>247</sup>Bk",
"Mass": 247.07,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"1.43 x 10<sup>3</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>249</sup>Bk",
"Mass": 249.075,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"320 d",
"<br>",
"1.8 x 10<sup>9</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"β",
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Stanley Thompson, Albert Ghiorso, and Glenn Seaborg",
"OriginOfName": "Berkelium was named after the town Berkeley, California, where it was first made.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1949"
},
{
"Number": 98,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -251,
"Name": "Californium",
"Acronym": "Cf",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
28,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1173,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>0</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>249</sup>Cf",
"Mass": 249.075,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"351 y",
"8 x 10<sup>10</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>252</sup>Cf",
"Mass": 252.082,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2.65 y",
"86 y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "Californium is a radioactive metal.",
"Uses": "Californium is a very strong neutron emitter. It is used in portable metal detectors, for identifying gold and silver ores, to identify water and oil layers in oil wells and to detect metal fatigue and stress in aeroplanes.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.45,
"CovalentRadius": 1.68,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
606.092,
1138.5
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>249</sup>Cf",
"Mass": 249.075,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"351 y",
"8 x 10<sup>10</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>250</sup>Cf",
"Mass": 250.076,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"13.1 y",
"1.7 x 10<sup>4</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>251</sup>Cf",
"Mass": 251.08,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"9 x 10<sup>2</sup> y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>252</sup>Cf",
"Mass": 252.082,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"2.65 y",
"86 y"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Stanley Thompson, Kenneth Street, Jr., Albert Ghiorso, and Glenn Seaborg",
"OriginOfName": "Californium is named for the university and state of California, where the element was first made.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1950"
},
{
"Number": 99,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -252,
"Name": "Einsteinium",
"Acronym": "Es",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
29,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1133,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>252</sup>Es",
"Mass": 252.083,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"1.29 y",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"EC"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A radioactive metal, only a few milligrams of which are made each year.",
"Uses": "Einsteinium has no uses outside research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.45,
"CovalentRadius": 1.65,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
619.44,
1158
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>252</sup>Es",
"Mass": 252.083,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"1.29 y",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"EC"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Albert Ghiorso and colleagues",
"OriginOfName": "Einsteinium is named after the renowned physicist Albert Einstein.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1952"
},
{
"Number": 100,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -257,
"Name": "Fermium",
"Acronym": "Fm",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
30,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1800,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>2</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>257</sup>Fm",
"Mass": 257.095,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"100.5 d",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A radioactive metal obtained only in microgram quantities.",
"Uses": "Fermium has no uses outside research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.45,
"CovalentRadius": 1.67,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
627.2
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>257</sup>Fm",
"Mass": 257.095,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"100.5 d",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Albert Ghiorso and colleagues",
"OriginOfName": "Fermium is named after the nuclear physicist Enrico Fermi.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1953"
},
{
"Number": 101,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -258,
"Name": "Mendelevium",
"Acronym": "Md",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
31,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1100,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>3</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>258</sup>Md",
"Mass": 258.098,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"51.5 d",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>260</sup>Md",
"Mass": 260.104,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"&#126 27.8 d"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been created.",
"Uses": "Mendelevium is used only for research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.46,
"CovalentRadius": 1.73,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
634.87
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>258</sup>Md",
"Mass": 258.098,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"51.5 d",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"sf"
]
},
{
"Name": "<sup>260</sup>Md",
"Mass": 260.104,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"&#126 27.8 d"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Albert Ghiorso and colleagues",
"OriginOfName": "Mendelevium is named for Dmitri Mendeleev who produced one of the first periodic tables.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1955"
},
{
"Number": 102,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -259,
"Name": "Nobelium",
"Acronym": "No",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
8,
2
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1100,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>259</sup>No",
"Mass": 259.101,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"58 m",
"",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"EC",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "Nobelium is a radioactive metal. Only a few atoms have ever been made. Its half-life is only 58 minutes.",
"Uses": "Nobelium has no uses outside research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.46,
"CovalentRadius": 1.76,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
641.63
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>259</sup>No",
"Mass": 259.101,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"58 m",
"",
""
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"α",
"EC",
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Georgy Flerov and colleagues and at Dubna, near Moscow, Russia, and independently by Albert Ghiorso and colleagues at Berkeley, California, USA",
"OriginOfName": "Nobelium is named for Alfred Nobel, the founder of the Nobel prize.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1963"
},
{
"Number": 103,
"Type": "Actinoid",
"Mass": -266,
"Name": "Lawrencium",
"Acronym": "Lr",
"Electrons": [
2,
8,
18,
32,
32,
8,
3
],
"Group": "Actinides",
"Period": 7,
"Block": "f",
"StateAt20C": "Solid",
"MeltingPoint": 1900,
"BoilingPoint": null,
"Orbitals": "[Rn] 5f<sup>1</sup><sup>4</sup>7s<sup>2</sup>7p<sup>1</sup>",
"KeyIsotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>262</sup>Lr",
"Mass": 262.11,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"3.6 h",
"<br>"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC",
"sf"
]
}
],
"Appearance": "A radioactive metal of which only a few atoms have ever been created.",
"Uses": "Lawrencium has no uses outside research.",
"AtomicData": {
"AtomicRadius": 2.46,
"CovalentRadius": 1.61,
"ElectronAffinity": null,
"ElectronNegativity": null,
"IonisationEnergies": [
472.8
]
},
"Isotopes": [
{
"Name": "<sup>262</sup>Lr",
"Mass": 262.11,
"NaturalAbundance": null,
"HalfLife": [
"3.6 h",
"<br>"
],
"ModeOfDecay": [
"EC",
"sf"
]
}
],
"DiscoveredBy": "Georgy Flerov and colleagues and at Dubna, near Moscow, Russia, and independently by Albert Ghiorso and colleagues at Berkeley, California, USA",
"OriginOfName": "Lawrencium is named after Ernest O. Lawrence the inventor of the cyclotron.",
"DiscoveredWhen": "1965"
}
]
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