aba · GitHub

course: https://edslearning.thinkific.com

module 1: overview of autism and how ABA is used.
module 2: science of ABA and principles used to make change.
module 3: measurement and data collection. Without data, its hard to know if we are makin a difference.
module 4: skill assessment. So as to know learners areas of weakness & strengths.
module 5: different methodologies used to teach ABA.
module 6: abhorrent behaviours and ways of reducing them.
module 7: documentation and reporting requirements.
module 8: professional ethics and conduct in ABA.

module 1: Understaning ASD.

https://edslearning.thinkific.com/courses/take/parent-mediated-intervention/presentations/56370761-autism-spectrum-disorder-asd

Dr. Jane Paul: [email protected]
definition of autism spectrum disorder(ASD)
- neurodevpt disorder. difficulty in social interaction, communication. presence of repetitive behavior & restricted interests.
history of ASD
- Identified 1943 by Leo Kanner. Called it infantile autism.
- Bruno; came up with the wrong concept of "refrigerator mother"; Autism is caused by 'cold' moms.
red flags
diagnostic criteria
- level 1: requires support
- level 2: require substantial support
- level 3: requires very substantial support.
terminology associated with the diagnosis
differential diagnosis(learning disability, processing disorders)
co-morbid disorders
applied behaviour analysis(ABA) and ASD.
CDC(america) says that 1 in 54 people in USA have ASD.
In this course you'll learn:
- identify areas of needs for intervention.
- use ABA method to improve behaviour.
  eg: Increase social communication. Decrease repetitive & inflexible behaviour.

A good autism screening tool is available at:: https://autismspeaks.org/what-autism/diagnosis/mchat

ADHD: neurodevpt disorder. Have trouble paying attention, controlling impulsive behavious, or be overly active.

Treatment models in ABA:

(a) comprehensive treatment: treatment of multiple affected domains. Non-compliance, tantrums, etc bahaviour can be of focus. These programs tend to be 30-40 hours per week.
(b) focussed treatment. Provided for a limited number of behavior targets.
Can focus on things that threaten behaviour of the child or others. eg, severe agression, non-compliance, toileting, etc.
The learner is always right. Teach them the way they learn.

At 5yrs:

Child may start using profanity as a way to feel independent. Encourage them to use polite words.
When reading to your child, ask him to predict what will happen next in the story.
Encourage your child to 'read' by looking at the pictures and telling the story.
Teach your child time concepts like morning, afternoon, tomorrow, and yesterday.
Teach the days of the week.
Explore your child's interests in your community. eg, if your child loves animals, visit the zoo.
Encourage your child to draw and make art projects with different supplies.
Toys that encourage your child to put things together.
Go on walks with your child. Do a scavenger hunt in your neighborhood or park. Ride a bike.

Notes from zoom meeting on 15/february/2025. 7pm:
The course is recognised by Qualified Applied Behavior Analysis Credentialing Board(QABA).
They can offer the ABA Technician Credential (ABAT). This is a proctored, online exam you can take to be board certified.
There is also IBAO(international behavior analysis organisation)
You need to get a pass mark of >80% (and they only allow one retake) to get the ABAT.
The exam has 80 questions.

data collection: Module 4
principles of increasing behaviour - module 5.
principles of decreasing behaviour - module 6.
principles of creating new behavior.
how to create motivation.
If you are not collecting data, you are not doing ABA.
Module 5 will have a video assignmenet you need to carry out with your child and upload.
Module 5 is the main foundation of this course. It's the one module you don't want to miss.
It will be covered in week 5 and week 6.
Leo Kanner's is the classic autism. The new DSM-5 and ICD have complicated things.
Dr. Jane Paul and colleagues usually come to Kenya every April.

module 2: What is ABA(Applied behaviour analysis)?

objectives:

(a) define
(b) 7 dimensions of ABA
(c) foundational principles
(d) how people can learn
(e) relation btwn behaviour and environment
(f) methods to improve behaviour
(g) apply this to improve behaviour
(h) applied verbal behaviour(AVB)

ABA: Its' a scientific method of changing innapropriate behaviours to socially appropriate behaviour.
It uses principles of learning & motivation.
It's based on principles of operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning: Consequences immediately following a behavior change the future occurence of that type of behavior in similar situations.
Reinforcement: When something added/removed increases occurence of the behavior.
Positve reinforcement: something added.
Negative reinforcement: something removed. It is not punishment.
Punishment: When consequences decreases future behavior.
Positive: adding something that decreases future behavior.
Negative: removing something that decreases future behavior.

Antecedent: John yells for a cookie.
Behavior: Mom gives cookie.
Consequence: John gets cookie.
Future: John will yell to get cookie in future. (Reinforcement)

Antecedent: Mary is late for work.
Behavior: She drives fast.
Consequence: Gets a ticket.
Future: Mary will drive more carefully in future. (Punishment)

7 dimensions of ABA:

(i) behavioral:
- behavior is everything people SAY and DO.
- focus on observable measurable behaviors
- if u can see it, you can measure it.
(ii) applied:
- the behavior to be changed should have social significance(to the child or society). eg language, self-care
(iii) technological:
- procedures used must be clear & replicable. Think of a recipe.
- replication make it teachable to others.
(iv) conceptually systematic:
- we have to understand why a certain procedure worked.
(v) analytical:
- we measure behavior b4 and after intervention.
(vi) generality:
- results are durable and long lasting. teaching a child their name; shud be able to say it in their home & also in class.
- if skills taught are not generalizing in all settings, problem; continue teaching till generalization occurs.
(vii) effective:
- practical substantial results.
- if john reduces head banging from 200 to 190; it is not substantial(he's still banging 190 times!)

Baer, Wolf & Risley seminal 1968 article on 7 dimensions of ABA. - founding fathers of ABA.

(a) Extinction: Withholding reinforcement thus resulting in a decrease in that behavior in future.
eg: child requests attention, parent ignores everytime, in future child will stop requesting for attention.
(b) Extinction burst: When a behavior is no longer followed by a reward, the child may exhibit an increase of that behavior.
(c) Spontaneous recovery: Tendency for behavior to occur again in situations similar tothose in which it occured before extinction.
Example: https://g.co/gemini/share/04264fe7e029
A child throws tantrums to get a candy.
Extinction: The parent, who previously gave in, now ignores the tantrum. The child learns that tantrums != candy, and the tantrum behavior decreases.
Extinction burst: The child might throw bigger tantrums after been ignored for a while.
Spontaneous recovery: Months later, the child might throw a tantrum again to try and get candy.

Prompt: Is an extra antecendent stimulus that helps a person engage in a behaviour. They are hints, clues.
You should fade them out soon, otherwise you get prompt dependency.

Notes from zoom meeting on 22/february/2025. 7pm:

When we say a child has a tantrum, that is not ABA like. In ABA we have to use specific behaviors that are measurable.
Instead we can say the child cries and kicks(cries and kicks are measurable)
We can also not say that a child has anger. What is anger? Can you measure it? Can you see it? Instead we should target the manifestation of anger(like throwing things or head banging)
If we say a child kicks and that is what we want to target. When he kicks we count it(for measurement), but if he stands up and jumps up and down; we do not count it since that is not the behaviour we initially identified for targetting.
If a kid asks for a break from a task, inform them that they need to do some task then take a break. Have them do some task(even if it is very small) then take break. That way, you re-inforce them listening and taking instructions from you.
Normal kids learn by modelling(what others are doing).
For ASD they learn via programming. So as a parent you have to be careful what behavior you are programming. If child yells and you give them candy, you are programming that behavior.
Every behavior you feed, grows. Those that you don't, die.
ABA deals with reinforcement more than punishment.
One of the 7 dimensions is technological. A treatment plan should be detailed and replicable. A treatment plan like learn body parts is a bad one. Be specific.
A better treatment plan:
- program: learn body parts.
- SD: touch body parts.
- what to expect: child should touch the named parts.
- list body parts: eyes, ears, etc.
- mastering criteria: child knows body parts 80%
- u should teach one body part at a time(repeating same each day) until they've mastered it.
- do random rotation. can they say eyes-ears and then ears-eyes.
- every caregiver should be able to follow the same routine.

module 3: Measurement and data collection.

objectives:

(a) why measure
(b) how to prep
(c) data collection methods
1. continous measurement(frequency, duration, percentage, latency)
2. dis-continous measurement(partial interval, whole interval, momentary time sampling)
3. others(permanent product)
(d) entering, summarizing and graphing data.

Measurement: process of applying quantitative labels to observed properties of events.
Why: To eveluate effects of intervention; b4, during, and after.
Without measurement, science is guess work.

Benefits:

(a) Accountability
(b) Optimize effectiveness
(c) Verify legitimacy of intervention
(d) ethical standards
(e) eliminate pseudo-science.

Prep for data collection:

consult skill acquistion plan or behavior reduction plan.
gather material, eg, data sheets.
write client name, date, etc
prepare env. minimize distractions.
collect data.
prepare for success.

Continous measurement procedures. Two are common:

(a) Frequency: How many time a behaviour occurs. eg, John raised his hand 10 times.
Con: Not good for high rates of behaviour or those with no clear beginning and end.

(b) Rate: Behaviour over time(frequency/time): eg, John hit himself 10 times in 3minutes.

example:       
Client: John
Date: 23/feb/2025
Time: 2p-4pm = 2hrs
| behaviour   | frequency | conversion   |
| ----------- | --------- | ------------ |
| tantrum     | 12        | 12/2 == 6/hr |
| aggression  | 6         | 6/2 == 3/hr  |

(c) Duration: Amount of time behaviour occurs. eg, John cried for 3hrs.
(d) Percentage: Meaure accuracy. (correct/total)*100.
eg, John was shown a cup and asked what it is 80 times. He got it correct 4 times. Percent = (4/80)*100 == 5%
(e) Latency: Time btwn instruction and response. Average_latency_per_session = (total_latency/number_latencies) Some social/conversational skills require the child to be able to respond fast.

Dis-continous measurement procedures: Not all instances of behaviour will be captured. Used when continous measurement would be difficult to use.

(a) Partial interval recording: Records prescense/abscence of a behaviour during many consecutive brief intervals of time.
Most common of the dis-continous procedures.
Divide observation period in short intervals(5-10secs). The shorter the interval, the better.
Record if target behaviour occured in that interval. You don't record how many times it did(only record Y for occurence or N for no occurence).
Use for behaviours you want to reduce. Bcoz it tends to over-estimate occurence. example behaviours; nail biting, hand flapping.
```
example:
Client: John
Date: 2/feb
Target: Aggression.
10sec intervals:  |y|n|y|y|y|n|n|y|n|y|  (y=behaviour happened, n=it didnt happen)
summary: (6/10)*100 == 60% (percentage of intervals. Not percentage of time.)
Example partial interval recording: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v9EEbNsR19o
```
(b) Whole interval recording: Divide observation period in short intervals(5-10secs).
Record if target behaviour occured THROUGHOUT the ENTIRE interval.
Use for behaviours you want to increase. Bcoz it tends to under-estimate occurence. example behaviours; puzzle play, co-operative play.
(c) Momentary time sampling: Record whether behavior occured right at the moment the interval elapsed.
Divide observation period in short intervals(5-10secs).
At end of interval, record if behaviour is still occuring.
It is great for when the technician is multi tasking.

Permanent product recording: Does not measure the behaviour, but the permanent product data(physical product that the behavior produced).
eg, Measure property destruction; holes punched into walls, broken items.
eg, Completed homework. Cleaned bedroom.
Pro: Requires no observation of behavior.
Con: Not an accurate measure.

Data entry and graphing:

do it immediately after every session.
graph after every session.
graph weekly.
tracks progress.
shows trends
if goal is not progressing, change is needed.

There are 4 main reasons for challenging behaviors to occur:

To escape or avoid an undesirable situation (ex. taking a test)
To get social attention (positive or negative) (ex. receiving a hug or a reprimand)
To gain access to a desired item/activity- (ex. To go outside)
To access sensory input- (ex. Enjoying the feeling of high-5's)
ie, Bad behaviours serve a function.
Behavior plans should be designed to provide appropriate consequences for the behaviors based on the determined function of the targeted behavior.
More importantly, plans should also include ways to teach appropriate alternatives to engaging in those behaviors. Replacement behaviors can include:
appropriate requesting
how to access attention appropriately
how to appropriately communicate wants and/or needs

Notes from zoom meeting on 01/march/2025. 7pm:

For task analysis, take a look at
This is done to help someone master a skill. eg: Taking a bath.
You list all the steps involved in the skill.
Then mark on whether child was able to do on their own.
Legend:
I = indepently did it on their own.
G = needed gesture prompts(eg, pointing at the tap)
V = verbal prompt.
FP = full physical prompt. ie, parent had to do it on behalf of the kid.
PP = partial physical prompt.

example_task_analysis:

steps(bathing)	1/march	2/march
1. take off shirt	I	I
2. take off pants	V	I
3. get in tub	I	I
4. take sponge	G	I
5. wash right leg	I	FP
6. wash left leg	Fp	G

total independent	3/6	4/6
% independent	50%	66%

For Frequency measurement:

You can see an example in

Goal	Date	current_item	circle	Trials	X/Y
Body parts	2/mar	Nose	A RR M	1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
			1 2	y y n y n n n y y	5/10

Body parts	2/mar	Eye	A RR M	1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
			1 2	y y y y n y n y y	7/10

Legend:
A: acquistion(ie, the child is just beginning to acquire this skill)
RR: random-rotation(you need to ask the child the skills randomly). eg, if learning about nose and eyes. Randomly permutate ua questions, when asking them "what part is this?", btwn nose and eyes.
RR(1,2): means we do random rotation twice on 2 different days. M: maintenance: when a skill has been acquired. It now needs to be asked once a week, spaced out(spaced repetition.)
Kids forget things if we do not do random rotation. They may also forget if we stop asking them after they've mastered(hence need for Maintenance.)
What to do is a kid is non-compliant(not following instructions)?
(a) Fill out ABC(Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence) form.
(b) Take data when they are compliant and also when they are non-compliant.
(c) We need to figure out what triggers the behaviour.
(d) We also need to figure out what we as parents do in response(ie, Consequence). If we give in easily, the kid might learn that they can get away with it. Remember that whichever behaviour you feed grows.
(e) We'll do that and then next week the lecturer(Dr. Jane) will guide.
What to do if kid bites others?
(a) Fill out ABC(Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence) form.
(b) That will show as the trigger.
(c) If we learn(from ABC) that they start biting when they are given a task.
(d) Then from that it seems that what they r trying to communicate is that they need a break.
(e) Introduce break cards.
(f) Tell them, "you can go for a break, but you first have to complete a task"
(g) Give them a task(the smaller the duration needed to finish this task the better) that you already know that they are able to do. This task doesn't have to be the same one from (c)
(h) Once done with that task, give them a break(maybe via break cards).
(i) This process creates a rapport with the kid. They learn that they can trust you to keep your word.
(j) At the same time it teaches them to ask for breaks when needed instead of engaging in bad behaviour.

module 4: assessment & its importance.

Objectives:

definition
conduct preference assessments
assist with individual assessment procedures(curriculum-based, developmental, social-skills)
assist with functional assessment procedures.

assessments help us to know what to treat. It is a roadmap guiding in the right direction.
You should describe the environ and behaviour in observable, specific & measurable terms.
bad: John had a bad mood today.
good: John cried for 25mins today.

Operational definitions. Tells you what behaviors to observe.
(a) Objective: Directly observable behaviour.
(b) Clear: No ambiguity.
(c) Complete: include all info needed. Includes examples & non-examples.
(d) Individualized.

behaviour	bad definition	good definition
aggression	physical assault	kicking, biting or slapping
interactive play	having fun with peers	responding in socially appropriate manner in the context of play, within 3secs of peer making play initiation

assessment example inforaml assessment

Preference assessments:

Procedures u conduct to help u predict what consequences u can deliver to the child that are likely to work as reinforcers.
Since re-inforcers are key to a session success, preference assessments are a must.
Always give child the opportunity to show you what they want.

How to conduct preference assessments.

We need to identify items or activities that will result in increased motivation for the client.
Once the items/activities are indentified, they may serve as reinforcers.
There are 3 methods;
(a) Ask the child/parent. Identify 6-12 items that satisfies a variety of senses(see, hear, smell, touch, etc)
(b) Just observing the individual enganging in activities with reinforcing items
(c) Trial based method. eg, present 2 items and ask them which one they want.
Why do preference assessment?
If item is not motivating enough, the individual will not work for it.
Must be done regurlaly bcoz preferences change over time(eg, due to satiation). If you give child sweet everyday, they'll get tired of it.

Single item preference assessment. It's the simplest.

Present one item at a time.
Record whether the child interacts/consumes with it.
Give the child 30secs and then present the next one.
Present all items in random order(3 times each).
Count the number of times the item was consumed/interacted with.
Items that were consumed/interacted with most times are likely to be good reinforcers.
For edibles, present tiny pieces. Edibles and non-edibles should be presented separately.

Paired choice preference assessment.

Good for when the child interacted with all items in single-item-preference experiment.
For each pair of items presented, allow child to only choose one.
Record the item that they interacted with
If both are refused, record.
If both are interacted with, take them away and then bring them back again(present them again).
Count number of times each item was interacted with, divide by number of opportunities the child had with the item, multiply by 100 to get percent.
Items with high percentage are likely to be good reinforcers.

Multiple stimulus preference assessment.

Place 3-7 items in line on a table and ask child to choose.
If they pick more than one, block them and then restart again.
If she picks item allow interaction for 30sec.
Present the remaining items(without the picked one) and let them choose.
Repeat till no items remain.
Items chosen earlier are likely to be good reinforcers.
You can repeat the proces once/twice and average results.
The above is multiple-stimulus-without-replacement, there exists a variant where the chosen item is presented again.

The preference assessments should be done multiple times and should be brief.

Conduct them throughout the day.
Conduct them b4 each new lesson/program/activity.
Conduct them each time you believe that the child is decreasing attention or is responding slower to instructions.
Present 2-3 items and ask child to choose one.
The one they choose will serve as reinforcer during that lesson.
Conducting them every 10mins ensures that the procedure is sensitive to what the child prefers in that moment.
Data from all these assessments can be averaged across the day to find the relative preference of items across the day.
If the child is *NO longer engaged, its time to conduct a preference assessment!
It is only a reinforcer if it increases behavior.
It is only a reinforcer if kid will actually work for the item. Are they motivated to get it?

There exists a number of skills assessment tools:
(a) verbal behaviour milestones assessment placement program(VB-MAPP)
(b) the assessment of basic language and learning skills revised (ABLLS-R)
(c) PEAK: relational training system
Run assessment procedures(receptive object labellin, expressive object labelling, etc) and document if child answers correctly.

Functional assessment procedures. They help you discover why a learner engages in a particular challenging behaviour.

ABC(Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence) data. This can be narrative(u observe & write down what u observe) or structured(when target behaviour occurs u circle it on a data sheet)

Notes from zoom meeting on 08/march/2025. 7pm:

This skill assessment can also be called reinforcer assessment, since you are trying to find a reinforcer.
Once you find a reinforcer how do you use it?
(a) Let's say you want to teach coloring, and the kid has picked a toy ball as the reinforcer.
(b) Ask child, 'what are we working for?', they'll say 'ball'
(c) Have the child color for the set period of time.
(d) Then give them the ball(reinforcer)
(e) Let them play with it for sometime, say 30secs.
(f) Then say, 'my turn', they had you the ball.
(g) Then you do more activity, till the next time you offer them the reinforcer.
(h) You offer the reinforcer when they make achievements in the activity at hand.
Look at the Vanderbilt EBIP youtube channel for assessment videos: https://www.youtube.com/@vanderbiltebip5312/search?query=assessment

module 5: skills acquisition.

Objectives:

identify the assessment components of a written skills acquistion plan
prepare for the session as required by the skill acquistion plan
use continencies of reinforcement(eg, conditioned/unconditioned reinforcers, continous and intermittent reinforcement)
implement discrete trial teaching procedures
implement naturalistic teaching procedures(eg, incidental teaching)
implement task analyzed chaining procedures
implement discrimination teaching and probing
implement stimulus control transfe procedures
implement stimulus prompt and prompt fading procedures
implement generalization and maintenance procedures
assist training stakeholders(family, etc)

Skill acquistion plan.
It is a doc specifying how to teach a particular skill. It's components are;
(a) target skill
(b) procedure to teach it.
(c) materials
(d) preparing the learning env
(e) instruction(sd)
(f) target response
(g) the reinforcement and schedule(is it continous, intermittent, etc)
(h) Prompting and prompt fading
(i) teaching targets or exemplars

You should use contingencies of reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement is the basis of ABA. Consequence of a behavior matters.
Reinforcement is a type of consequence and has an effect on behaviour. It makes one do that behavior more in the future.
Continous reinforcement schedule reinforces every occurence of the behaviour. When teaching new skills, continous reinforcement should be used.
This can be helpful especially in manding program.
Manding: teaching autism kids to make requests(mands) for things they need or want.
Intermittent reinforcement schedule reinforces based on a system of responses(eg, every 4 responses, provide social reinforcement.)
Positive reinforcement is when something is added to strengthen a behaviour. eg giving candy.
Negative reinforcement is when something is removed to strengthen behaviour. .
Unconditioned reinforcement; the effectiveness of a reinforcer does not depend on a learning history. eg, wanting food when hungry.
Conditioned reinforcement; those that have acquired effectiveness due to a learnin history of the person. eg, if you praise a learner when you give them a reinforcer, eventually praise alone will be enough as a reinforcer on its own.
Tokens: Its a conditioned reinforcer that kid earns for correct responses. The tokens can later be exchanged for an even more powerful reinforcer. eg, every time kid is correct they get 1 point/token. When the points accumulate to 10, they can exchange them for time with a favorite toy.
For effective token use:
(a) Follow token rules as laid out in skill acquistion plan.
(b) make sure that learner sees that he earned a token.
(c) give learner token after behaviour that meets the set criteria.
(d) allow kid to exchange tokens as said in skill acquistion plan.

Two schedules of reinforcement;

Continous reinforcement. Give reinforcer every time a particular behaviour occurs.
Intermittent reinforcement. Give reinforcer intermittently, eg, every 4th correct response.
This one leads to strong behaviour maintenance.

Intermittent schdule for reinforcement has 4 types:
(a) Fixed ratio: reinforcer given after a target number of responses. eg, FR2 = every 2 letters written, kid is given fav toy.
(b) Variable ratio: reinforcer given after an average number of responses.
(c) Fixed interval: reinforcer given after fixed amount of time
(d) Variable interval: reinforcer gven after average amount of time. eg, VI5= if kid colors for 3min-7min but average of 5mins, they get fav toy.

Effective delivery of reinforcer:

Immediate. Deliver it within 1sec of target behaviour occuring.
Enthusiastic. Give praise as reinforcement.
Contingent. Only give if kid has done target behaviour.
Large enough. eg, giving kid fav toy for 30secs is not an effective reinforcer. Give more time.
Specific. Name the behaviour when u give reinforcement.
Use expansions. eg, When kid paints succesfully. Say "u painted a red house" instead of "u painted red".
Maximize motivating operations. Reinforcer wont work if kid had a lot of it recently.

Motivating operations. These are antecedents that affect potency of reinforcers. Two types;
(a) Establishing operations. They increase potency of a reinforcer. Depriving someone off a reinforcer can increase its potency. eg, if you deprive a kid off a fav toy, that increases the potency of that toy as a reinforcer in future sessions.
(b) Abolishing operations. They decrease potency of a reinforcer. If kid has just drank water, water is no longer a potent reinforcer.

Instructional methods.
A. Discrete trial training(DTT)
B. Natural environment training(NET)

A. Discrete trial training(DTT). Method of teaching in simplified structured steps. Do not teach skill in one go. Break it down and teach one step at a time.
Each teaching opportuninty/trial has a definite beginnin and end(hence discrete).
Use of antecedents and consequences is carefully planned. It uses reinforcement and prompt procedures.
Pioneered by Dr. Ivar Lovaas. It has 3 distinct parts.
(a) Antecedent which is clear, simple and instruction provided to the student(SD).
eg, parent says "do this" "touch apple" "give me apple" "match"
(b) Behaviour that we expect the kid to perform in response to our instructions. It shud be defined clearly. Anyone can teach the kid and know what to expect.
eg, "Bob will point to the correct item"
(c) Consequence. Either positive reinforcement for correct responses or a correct for incorrect responses.
eg, verbal praise, giving cookie, giving token, other reinforcers, etc.
Type and amount of reinforcement must be defined and adhered to. eg, reinforcer given after every correct reponse.
DTT employs prompt strategies for incorrect responses as well as for no responses. Prompts are supplemental teaching aids. These can be verbal, gesture, physical, etc.
For incorrect response, no reinforcer is given, even after correction.

DTT implementation:
(a) decide what to teach.
(b) break it down to simple steps. complete a task analysis of the skills.
(c) setup data collection system(data sheets designed specifically for the skill been taught)
(d) select location for DTT
(e) assemble materials.
(f) deliver trials.

DTT vocabulary.
Target: What is been taught.
Field: How many objects the child is choosing between.
Disriminative stimulus(SD): the instruction or question given to the kid.
Responses:

correct (+)
Incorrect/prompted (I, G, V, FP, PP) - search earlier notes for what those intials mean.
Non-response/prompted

Example data sheet: also see

Target	Phase/Field	Current gen level	1	2	3	4	5	percent
Touch apple	MT RR	1 2 3 4	+	+	-	+	+	80
	1 2 3 4 5 6	probed level
		2 3 4
		prompt used			PP

Another alternative DTT data-sheet: also see
client:
program:
SD:
Response:
Prompt:

target	date	trials	percent
touch apple	2/2025	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10	65

when kid gets it correct, tick the trial number.
when they get it wrong, cross the trial number.
Then take percent of success. The success are the ones they did on their own with no prompt.
MT: mass trial. ie, the first time you introduce the session.
RR: random-rotation. see earlier notes.

DTT procedure:

gain learners attention.
deliver instruction in clear natural voice.
use a prompt, if it is a prompted trial.
wait upto 3sec for kids response.
if response, reinforce kid promptly.
if no response, or incorrect response implement correction procedure.
record data correctly and quickly.
gain learners attention again if neccesary and give next instruction. Time btwn consequence of one trial to instruction of the next(inter-trial interval) should not be longer than 3secs.
embed learnin through play.
vary your praise.

Error correction. If learner gives incorrect response you should correct them.
Example, you can repeat the instruction while also giving immediate full prompt. The general rationale is to use prompting to prevent learner from making repeated errors.
eg, in ROL when you tell kid touch apple, if they error; wait 3secs, tell them this is an apple(ie, correct them). Then repeat the question touch apple.

Examples:
(a) Receptive language labelling(ROL). Demonstrate understanding of labels.
Touch apple, Give me ___
(b) Expressive object labelling(EOL). Demonstrate ability to name items.
What is this?, And that one?, Therapist points at an item(no verbal)
(c) Instruction following(IF). Demonstrate ability to listen and follow directions.
Clap for me, show me clapping
(d) Non verbal imitation(NVI). Ability to copy someones motor actions.
Do this(therapist claps hands)
(e) Verbal imitation(VI). Ability to copy someones verbal language.
therapist says the word apple

Types of DTT trials:

Mass trial(MT): Only one item is targetted. Ask for one item but vary the instruction/question. Reinforce ALL correct responses. Mastery criteria is 80%.
Random rotation: 2-6 targets randomized, data collected only for target. Rearrange items. Social praise for correct response. Note errors. Do error correction.

Generalization.

level1: Use 2 different instructions/questions.
level3: change environment.
level4: use different people(therapist, parent, caregiver, etc)

Mastery criteria: eg; Bob gets 80% correct responses for identifying apple in random rotation with 2 different people across 2 days.

Notes from zoom meeting on 15/march/2025. 7pm:

For MT(mass trial), you want 100% mastery criteria. ie, kid gets it 100% of the time with no prompt.
For RR(random rotation), you want 100% mastery criteria.
For mastering trial, you want 80% mastery criteria.
The planning sheet is part of the skill acquisition plan. It has list of all items kid needs to master. For Dr. Jane, she usually has like 100 items that kid needs to master. eg apple, banana, chair, etc.
also see
NB: the planning sheet is on the same page of paper as the skill acquisition plan.
Every kid as skill acquisition plan but not every one has a behavior intervention plan(this one is 4 those with troublesome behavior).
Intermittent reinforcement can be used for fading prompt.
For the tokens reinforcer, you can tell kid something like;
"what are we working for?", "10 tokens which will get you ua fav toy".
Everytime they complete a task, give them a token. Token can be like a smiley icon, or even a virtual token in an app.
Give toy when they get to 10 tokens.
In DTT use a fast pace to ensure that kid does not lose motivation.
Avoid asking questions if you intend to give instructions. Asking questions offers kids opportunity to refuse. cleanup now vs can you clean up now?
Do not repeat the instruction/question before giving a consequence. Repeating is not an effective instructional practice. Adult should be in control.

B. Natural environment training(NET). Can be effective in generalization of mastered skills and acquistion of pragmatic language, social skills etc.
It targets learning under natural conditions. eg, playing with bubbles as part of a manding program. the kid will be motivated to mand/request for bubbles.
It is known by several names;
(a) natural environment teaching.
(b) incidental teaching.
(c) milieu teaching.
(d) pivotal response training.
Characteristics:

child directed learning.
use of reinforcers that are related to the teaching interaction.
motivation embedded within the teaching context.
interpersonal of mastered skills.
has less of a focus on maximizing the greatest possible number of learning opportunities.

Steps in implementing NET:

prep the environment. eg, make sure the preferred itema are out of reach.
identify skills to be taught.
engage the learner in play/interaction. The goal for the arranged env is to evoke initiation by the kid. Be sure you have the kids attention and contrive a clear opportunity for them to respond.
eg, (a) play out of reach of a toy or (b) give child coloring paper without crayons. etc.
the learner initiates. this is when the learnin opportunity begins. eg, the child might reach out for the toy, or look at you expectantly.
if kids initiation is sufficient for reinforcement, then, reinforce them. eg, if kid had coloring paper with no crayons, and they say crayons please, reinforce by giving them crayons.
if kids initiation is not sufficient, prompt for a response. eg, if kid reaches for crayons without asking, you can prompt by saying crayons please.
if kid responds to ua prompt correctly, reinforce it and fade prompt over time.
ensure env is arranged for another learning opportunity. eg, child colors for 30secs, then you say my turn to give the kid a chance to request again.

NET examples:

sit next to un-blown ballons, when kid reaches for one, prompt them for what color it is. if correct, reinforce by blowing it up for them.
if kid wants to go out, use NET to put on their shoes.

Merits:

It has better generalization
Kid n parents may prefer it.
Demerits:
Depends on kids motivation which can be difficult.
consistency may be difficult.
requires ability to amend teaching on the spot.

Most ABA programs combine both DTT and NET.

Shaping: is the procedure in which you reinforce successive approximations to a behaviour in order to create new forms of behaviour.
eg, for word for apple you start by reinforcing a, then puh and finally apple.

Task analysis(TA): Breaking down a complex skill into small teachable steps.
Chaining: Is a teaching procedure where u prompt and reinforce each behaviour in a task analysis. There are 3 of them;
(a) forward chaining: you have the kid do the first behaviour in a TA then the trainer does the rest.
(b) backward chaining: the trainer does all the steps except the last one which is done by the kid.
(c) total task: trainer presents the entire task, and the kid has to complete it all. Deliver reinforcement at last step.
Example skills for TA: brushing teeth, tying shoes. See previous notes for an example(search for example_task_analysis)

Stimulus control: When a particular behaviour is reinforced only in the prescence of a particular stimulus, that behaviour will begin to occur reliably in presence of that stimulus.
eg, If kid learns that when mom is present and they cry they'll be given food, but not when dad is present. The behaviour of crying will manifest more often when mom is present.
Stimulus control applies to both desired and undesired behaviours.

Discriminative stimulus is a stimulus that has come to have a stimulus control over a behaviour.
The goal of DTT is to establish instructions as discriminative stimulus.
ie, to teach kid that when they hear a certain instruction, they should engage in a particular behaviour.

Simultaneous discriminative: is the procedure to teach kid to make discriminations btwn 2/more stimuli that are present at same time. It is like multiple choice questions in a test.
eg, give me apple, where is apple, which one is red
Steps:

mass trials: show pic of apple and ask kid to touch apple.
mass trial with distructor: show pic of apple and orange, ask kid to touch apple.
random rotation: show large and small apple, ask which one is larger?, then change their positions at random.

Successive discriminative: do one behaviour in presence of one stimuli and another behaviour in presence of another stimuli.
eg, tell me something that flies, tell me something that swims.

Prompting: something u do to help learner do something they couldnt otherwise do. They have to be faded out in order for us to declare success.
eg, when someone enters the do, prompt the kid to say hi. If kid needs the prompt always, they have not yet learnt the skill. Prompt has to be faded for success.
Types of prompts:
(a) physical - (i) full physical (ii) partial
(b) model - you demo the desired response. eg demo clapping.
(c) verbal - they are the most difficult to fade
(d) gestural - gesture
(e) proximity - make stimulus close to the learner
(f) visual - help with transtions. eg, can have photo showing the activities u intend to do in that session.
(g) extrastimulus and intrastimulus.

Prompt fading: a procedure where aspects of a stimuli is slowly & systematically faded.
(a) least to most: fewer prompts at the start and increase them.
eg, touch nose, if they dont respond, ask again and touch yours, if they still don't, ask again and take their hand to their nose.
(b) most to least: touch nose, physically promt kid to touch, if they respond correctly, in next trial touch yours, if they respond correctly, in next trial do not prompt.
Time delay: You can insert delays btwn giving instructions and prompting to help with fading.
eg, trial1; give FP prompt. trial2: give PP. trial3: 1sec delay for PP. trial4: 2sec delay PP. trial5: no prompt.

Stimulus control transfer: there are stituations where a stimulus reliably works but we would now want another stimulus to do so. Especially where the second stimulus is the one the learner will be using in real day life.
eg, a kid washes hands after toileting when his father asks him to. We need to fade the fathers prompt. After toileting, have the father point to the sink instead of verbal prompt. The stimulus will be transferred to the sight of sink.
Stimulus control from one person to another is important(eg from therapist to parent).
eg; day1 have therapist implement plan in presence of mom. day2 have mom implement plan whereas therapist implements consequences. day3 have mom implement all. day4 repeat with dad.

Generalization: spreading of effects of training to other settings. It should be the central goal of treatment. Two types:
(a) Stimulus generalization - when a behaviour is trained with one stimulus and it can then occur under other stimulus. eg, teach kid to label images of cars and they can label actual cars.
(b) Response generalization - when a behaviour is trained on one stimulus and then a different behaviour occurs under same stimulus. eg, teach kid to build house of blocks, and they later use blocks to build a boat.
Multiple exemplars training: is when u teach more than one example of the skill. It is a reliable way to get generalization. eg, show pic of dogs, point out dogs when walking, watch cartoons with dogs, in all u ask what is it?
PEAK curriculum is good for this. use MET for teaching.
Train kids across different people and different settings.

Maintenance: is when skill/behaviour maintains over time even when that behaviour is no longer being targeted directly. eg, kid continues brushing his teeth day after day.
Two things are helpful in encouraging maintenance:
(a) intermittent reinforcement: when only some occurences of a behavior are reinforced. move from reinforcing every correct response to every 2/3 responses.
(b) transitioning to natural reinforcers: eg, social attention from other kids during play becomes a natural reinforcer.
Kid should have a maintenance plan: probe previously mastered skills on intermittent basis. Do not prompt in maintenance. Reinforce immediately for correct response.

Rules for reinforcers:
(a) they should be reinforcing.
- It is only a reinforcer if it increases behavior.
- It is only a reinforcer if kid will actually work for the item. Are they motivated to get it?
(a) they should be contingent.
- avail them only when target behaviour occurs.
- kid should not have access to them at any other time.
(c) use variety of reinforcers.
(d) pair social reinforcers with primaries. This way, social ones will eventually become reinforcing as well.
(e) Continously identify new reinforcers.
(f) Use age appropriate reinforcers.
(g) Reinforce immediately in the beginning. 0.5sec after a behaviour.
(h) Be consistent.
(i) Fade it over time.
- In the beginning label the behaviour that is been reinforced. This helps kid know what target is and that u would like them to repeat it.
- Over time move to natural reinforcers. Helps in generalization.
(j) Do not use reward as birbery.
- Avoid getting the kid accustomed to hearing what the reinforcer will be in advance.
- When bad behaviour happens, do not remind them of the reinforcer they will receive if they stop crying.
- Announce the reward after the appropriate behaviour occurs.
(k) Use differential reinforcement.
- Give the strongest reinforcers for the best behaviour/perfomance.

Parent training:

See
(a) communication.
(b) following instructions.
(c) imitation.
(d) verbal skills.
(e) labelling items
(f) life skills training
See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BxK-FkRnE9A for videos of various teaching techniques
See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XKWBOY8tIow for Early Start Denver Model by guest Presenter Dr. Sally Rogers (Co-developer), UC Davis MIND Institute.
See ./statics/module5_skill_Acquisition-and-Planning-Sheet-blank.doc
See ./statics/module5_skill_Acquisition-and-Planning-Sheet-EOL.doc
See ./statics/module5_skill_Acquisition-and-Planning-Sheet-Matching.doc
See ./statics/module5_skill_Acquisition-and-Planning-Sheet-ROL.doc
See ./statics/module5_skill_Acquisition-and-Planning-Sheet-blank.doc
See ./statics/module5_skill_Acquisition-and-Planning-Sheet-fill-ins.doc
See ./statics/module5_skill_Acquisition-and-Planning-Sheet-personalInformation.doc
See ./statics/module5_DTI-Data-Sheet.docx
See ./statics/module5_DTI-graph1.pdf
See ./statics/module5_How-to-teach-pivotal-behaviors.pdf
See ./statics/module5_Pivotal-Response-InterventionI-Overview-of-Approach.pdf

komuw/aba.md

module 1: Understaning ASD.

module 2: What is ABA(Applied behaviour analysis)?

module 3: Measurement and data collection.

module 4: assessment & its importance.

module 5: skills acquisition.