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"Roads and Bridges: the unseen labor behind our digital infrastructure" -- crudely reformatted from PDF to HTML using MS Word 2013. Mostly legible, but has significant layout issues. Refer to original in case of confusion: http://www.fordfoundation.org/library/reports-and-studies/roads-and-bridges-the-unseen-labor-behind-our-digital-infrastructure/
Raw
readme.md

Roads and Bridges: the unseen labor behind our digital infrastructure

by Nadia Eghbal

This is a copy, crudely reformatted from PDF to HTML using MS Word 2013. It has significant layout issues and no images, but should be mostly legible on small screens.

Refer to original in case of confusion:
http://www.fordfoundation.org/library/reports-and-studies/roads-and-bridges-the-unseen-labor-behind-our-digital-infrastructure/

Read rendered gist version:
https://cdn.rawgit.com/maphew/2d0f6b0c9b5d4f96d6f4509b0011b352/raw/b3c0a8c82bd77e7a75bebe9a2672623926fdfb11/roads-and_filtered.html

Source code of gist html version:
https://gist.github.com/maphew/2d0f6b0c9b5d4f96d6f4509b0011b352

Raw
roads-and_filtered.html
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<p><i>"Roads and Bridges: the unseen labor behind our digital infrastructure"</i> -- crudely reformatted from PDF to HTML using MS Word 2013. Largely legible, but has significant layout issues and no images.</p>
<p>Refer to original in case of confusion: <a href="http://www.fordfoundation.org/library/reports-and-studies/roads-and-bridges-the-unseen-labor-behind-our-digital-infrastructure/">http://www.fordfoundation.org/library/reports-and-studies/roads-and-bridges-the-unseen-labor-behind-our-digital-infrastructure/</a></p>
<p>Source code of gist html version: <a href="https://gist.github.com/maphew/2d0f6b0c9b5d4f96d6f4509b0011b352">https://gist.github.com/maphew/2d0f6b0c9b5d4f96d6f4509b0011b352</a></p>
<div class=WordSection1>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><b><span style='font-size:120.0pt;line-height:107%'>Roads</span></b><b><span
style='font-size:108.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'> </span></b></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=147 style='width:109.9pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
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<td width=147 valign=bottom style='width:109.9pt;background:#EF483F;
padding:0cm 11.15pt 15.05pt 9.4pt;height:590.0pt'>
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0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span style='font-size:56.0pt;line-height:107%;
color:white'>and</span></b></p>
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style='font-size:15.0pt;line-height:107%;color:white'> </span></b></p>
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margin-left:3.8pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span
style='font-size:15.0pt;line-height:107%;color:white'>Nadia Eghbal</span></b></p>
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style='font-size:50.0pt;line-height:107%;color:white'> </span></b><b><span
style='font-size:60.0pt;line-height:107%;color:white'> </span></b><b><span
style='font-size:120.0pt;line-height:107%'>Bridges:</span></b><span
style='font-size:17.0pt;line-height:107%;color:#57575B'>The Unseen Labor Behind
</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:9.0pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span
style='font-size:17.0pt;line-height:107%;color:#57575B'>Our Digital
Infrastructure</span><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</p>
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margin-left:6.8pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:113%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
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<td></td>
<td><img width=147 height=429 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image001.gif"></td>
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<br clear=ALL>
<b><span style='font-size:54.0pt;line-height:113%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#A7A9AB'>Open up your phone. </span></b><sup><span style='font-size:
8.5pt;line-height:113%'>2 </span></sup><b><span style='font-size:54.0pt;
line-height:113%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#A7A9AB'>Your social
media, your news, your medical records, your bank: they are all using</span></b><b><span
style='font-size:54.0pt;line-height:113%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#C8E9F3'> </span></b><b><span style='font-size:54.0pt;line-height:113%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F8A38E'>free and public code.</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:81.1pt;
margin-left:74.0pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
5.5pt;line-height:110%'>CONTENTS</span></p>
<h1 style='margin-bottom:11.05pt'>Table of Contents</h1>
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margin-left:7.1pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%'>4</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.5pt;
margin-left:8.5pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
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<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.5pt;
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<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.25pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:2.75pt;line-height:
277%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:277%'>11 </span><b><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:277%'>18</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.5pt;
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11.0pt;line-height:107%'>19</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:3.8pt;margin-bottom:
22.0pt;margin-left:2.55pt;text-indent:.1pt;line-height:267%'><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:267%'>23 29</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:3.75pt;margin-bottom:
14.0pt;margin-left:2.5pt;text-indent:-2.35pt;line-height:163%'><b><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:163%'>37 </span></b><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:163%'>38</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:21.5pt;
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<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
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style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>53</span></p>
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<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:6.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span style='color:#F5826C'>Preface</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Foreword</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Executive Summary</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:30.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Introduction</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span style='color:#F5826C'>History
and Background of </span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:6.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span style='color:#F5826C'>Digital
Infrastructure</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:107%'>How software gets built</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:14.8pt;margin-bottom:
8.0pt;margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:114%'><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:114%'>How not charging for software
transformed society</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:4.4pt;margin-bottom:
30.0pt;margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:114%'><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:114%'>A brief history of free and public
software and the people who made it</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:6.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span style='color:#F5826C'>How
The Current System Works</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:13.95pt;margin-bottom:
8.0pt;margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:114%'><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:114%'>What is digital infrastructure, and
how does it get built?</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:12.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:98%'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;
line-height:98%'>How are digital infrastructure projects managed and
supported?</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:33.55pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Why do people keep contributing to
these projects, when they’re not getting paid for it? </span></p>
</td>
<td width=53 valign=top style='width:39.95pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:452.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:6.85pt;margin-bottom:
13.0pt;margin-left:9.65pt;text-indent:-2.7pt;line-height:171%'><b><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:171%'>58 </span></b><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:171%'>59</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:21.5pt;
margin-left:9.25pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
11.0pt;line-height:107%'>66</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:30.5pt;
margin-left:9.3pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
11.0pt;line-height:107%'>77</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:2.85pt;
margin-left:6.8pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%'>89</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:6.65pt;margin-bottom:
16.0pt;margin-left:9.45pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:163%'><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:163%'>90 97</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.55pt;margin-bottom:
22.0pt;margin-left:3.35pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:163%'><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:163%'>106 109</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.85pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:107%'>124</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.5pt;
margin-left:3.5pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
11.0pt;line-height:107%'>125</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.7pt;margin-bottom:
22.0pt;margin-left:3.5pt;text-indent:.1pt;line-height:163%'><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:163%'>127 136</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:6.85pt;
margin-left:.1pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:107%'>139</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.3pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:4.15pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.75pt;line-height:
107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>140 142</span></p>
</td>
<td width=294 valign=top style='width:220.35pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:452.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:6.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span style='color:#F5826C'>Challenges
Facing Digital Infrastructure</span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;
line-height:107%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:50.7pt;margin-bottom:
8.0pt;margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:114%'><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:114%'>Open source’s complicated
relationship with money </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:30.9pt;margin-bottom:
8.0pt;margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:114%'><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:114%'>Why digital infrastructure support
problems are accelerating</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:30.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:107%'>The hidden costs of ignoring infrastructure</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:6.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span style='color:#F5826C'>Sustaining
Digital Infrastructure</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Business models for digital infrastructure </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:75.05pt;margin-bottom:
6.0pt;margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:131%'><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Finding a sponsor or donor for an
infrastructure project</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Why is it so hard to fund these projects?</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:30.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Institutional
efforts to support digital infrastructure</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:6.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span style='color:#F5826C'>Opportunities
Ahead</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Developing effective support strategies</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Priming the landscape</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:30.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:107%'>The crossroads we face</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:6.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span style='color:#F5826C'>Appendix</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.8pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Glossary</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Acknowledgements</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:582.6pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:-34.05pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:
107%'><img width=818 height=1056 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image002.gif"><br
clear=ALL>
</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection2>
<h1 style='margin-left:.2pt'>Foreword</h1>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.95pt'>I stumbled upon the problem
described in this report on a hunch. Having previously worked in startups, and
then venture capital, I saw the enormous amounts of money being poured into
software companies. But as an amateur software developer, I knew that I had
never done any of it alone. I used free and publicly available code (also known
as “open source” code), which I cobbled together and offered up for personal or
commercial purposes. Really, the people behind those projects, whoever they
were, had done most of the work.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>I mulled over this observation for several years, as I
watched the explosion of coding “bootcamps” graduating new software developers
left and right, and as I watched startups raise tens of millions of dollars
selling products which I knew, under the hood, were probably more public than
proprietary code. Having previously worked in the nonprofit sector, I
immediately thought of public goods and their associated challenges, yet this
vocabulary was strangely absent among my peers in software.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>After I left my job in venture capital last year, I set off
to explore the paradox I couldn’t stop thinking about: that there were valuable
software tools that couldn’t be supported by commercial models, and that they
lacked any form of institutional support.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:24.15pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Funnily enough, open source code wasn’t on my original list.
I had mistakenly assumed, as had my peers, that these tools were an example of
a particularly well-supported public good in software. When I brought up open
source to friends and mentors, they gently dissuaded me from pursuing the
topic, encouraging me instead to find other examples that actually needed the
help.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>A few open source projects crossed my radar, however, and
shattered those assumptions. It turned out that sustainability challenges were
well-known among those who contributed to open source. The more I dug, the more
I found blog posts, articles, and frequent public conversations about the
stress and exhaustion felt by those who maintain open source projects.
Everybody knew someone else I should talk to, and before I knew it, I had
collected countless stories on this topic.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>I realized I had walked into a problem with which the
producers (open source contributors) were extremely familiar, but that the
consumers (software companies and other users of open source code) were
seemingly unaware of. That discrepancy made me want to look more closely.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>In addition, it seemed that open source itself was changing,
perhaps even bifurcating. I found myself having completely different
conversations with different generations of open source contributors. They
seemed to have divergent philosophies and values; they may as well not have
been using the same terminology. I learned that open source had seen an
explosion of production as well as demand in the past three to five years,
thanks to improvements in developer tools and workflows. Today’s open source
contributor looked very different from an open source contributor ten years
ago, much less thirty years ago. And yet these different generations weren’t talking
to each other, making productive conversations about sustainability difficult.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:12.55pt;
margin-left:36.45pt;text-indent:-20.9pt;line-height:182%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:182%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:182%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>Center for Civic Media gave
me an opportunity to share these A chance conversation with Ethan Zuckerman of
the MIT findings more widely. </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>I described to Ethan the problem I was seeing, though I
didn’t know exactly what it all meant or the vocabulary I should be using, and
he kindly put me in touch with Jenny Toomey of the Ford Foundation. Jenny
suggested I aggregate my findings into a report. In the process, a narrative around
our modern digital society, and the hidden infrastructure that powers it, has
emerged.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>This report would not have happened without Ethan and Jenny
taking a chance on a half-baked idea that now, through the process of writing,
has been shaped into something more. I am extremely grateful to both of them
for their intuition. I am additionally grateful to Michael Brennan and Lori
McGlinchey for their guidance, perspective and enthusiasm in the editing
process. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, I am indebted to every person
working in open source who made their stories public for people like me to
read, and especially those who took a moment out of their busy schedules to
humor me with a conversation or an email. This report is a collection of their
wisdom, not mine. I am particularly grateful for early conversations with
Russell Keith-Magee, Eric Holscher, Jan Lehnardt, Andrey Petrov, and Mikeal
Rogers, all of whom continue to inspire me with their patience and dedication
to open source work. Thank you for your kindness.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection3>
<h1 style='margin-left:.2pt'>Executive Summary</h1>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:10.0pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Our modern society—everything from hospitals to stock
markets to newspapers to social media—runs on software. But take a closer look,
and you’ll find that the tools we use to build software are buckling under
demand.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Nearly all software today relies on free, public code
(called “open source” code), written and maintained by communities of
developers and other talent. Much like roads or bridges, which anyone can walk
or drive on, open source code can be used by anyone—from companies to
individuals—to build software. This type of code makes up the digital
infrastructure of our society today.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:13.55pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=672 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=7 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image003.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
Just like physical infrastructure, digital infrastructure needs regular upkeep
and maintenance. In the United States, over half of government spending on
transportation and water infrastruc-</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=600
style='width:450.25pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:37.55pt'>
<td width=528 valign=bottom style='width:396.0pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:37.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'>ture goes just to maintenance.<sup>1</sup> But financial
support for digital infrastructure is much harder to come by. Currently, any
financial </p>
</td>
<td width=72 valign=top style='width:54.25pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:37.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>1 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://www.cbo.gov/
publication/49910</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>support usually comes through sponsorships, direct or
indirect, from software companies.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.3pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Maintaining open source code used to be more manageable.
Following the personal computer revolution of the early 1980s, most commercial
software was proprietary, not shared. Software tools were built and used
internally by companies, and their products were licensed to customers. Many
companies felt that open source code was too nascent and unreliable for
commercial use. In their view, software was meant to be charged for, not given
away for free. Today, everybody uses open source code, including Fortune 500
companies, government, major software companies and startups. Sharing, rather
than building proprietary code, turned out to be cheaper, easier, and more
efficient. This increased demand puts additional strain on those who maintain
this infrastructure, yet because these communities are not highly visible, the
rest of the world has been slow to notice. Most of us take opening a software
application for granted, the way we take turning on the lights for granted. We
don’t think about the human capital necessary to make that happen.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>In the face of unprecedented demand, the costs of not
supporting our digital infrastructure are numerous. On the risk side, there are
security breaches and interruptions in service, due to infrastructure
maintainers not being able to provide adequate support. On the opportunity
side, we need to maintain and improve these software tools in order to support
today’s startup renaissance, which relies heavily on this infrastructure.
Additionally, open source work builds developers’ portfolios and helps them get
hired, but the talent pool is remarkably less diverse than in tech overall.
Expanding the pool of contributors can positively affect who participates in
the tech industry at large.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>No individual company or organization is incentivized to
address the problem alone, because open source code is a public good. In order
to support our digital infrastructure, we must find ways to work together.
Current examples of efforts to support digital infrastructure include the Linux
Foundation’s Core Infrastructure Initiative and Mozilla’s Open Source Support
(MOSS) program, as well as numerous software companies in various capacities.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:3.9pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Sustaining our digital infrastructure
is a new topic for many, and the challenges are not well understood. In addition,
infrastructure projects are distributed across many people and organizations,
defying common governance models. Many infrastructure projects have no legal
entity at all. Any support strategy needs to accept and work with the
decentralized, community-centric qualities of open source code. Increasing
awareness of the problem, making it easier for institutions to contribute time
and money, expanding the pool of open source contributors, and developing best
practices and policies across infrastructure projects will all go a long way in
building a healthy and sustainable ecosystem.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection4>
<h1 style='margin-left:.2pt'>Introduction</h1>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:71.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>In 1998, a group of security experts in the UK got
together to build a free set of encryption tools for the Internet.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Soon everybody was talking about their
project, called OpenSSL. </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.9pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>(The developers had used an existing Australian
project, called SSLeay, as their blueprint.) Not only was it comprehensive and
decently reliable, but it was free. Writing cryptography wasn’t easy, and
OpenSSL had solved a major pain point for developers worldwide.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=617 style='width:462.9pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:57.55pt'>
<td width=528 valign=bottom style='width:395.8pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:57.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:26.95pt;
margin-left:.15pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>over the Internet.<sup>2</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'>Meanwhile, the project continued to be informally managed
by a </p>
</td>
<td width=89 valign=top style='width:67.05pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:57.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>2 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://news.netcraft.com/
archives/2014/04/08/
half-a-million-widely-trusted-websites-vulnerable-toheartbleed-bug.html</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:47.3pt;margin-bottom:
2.35pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=9 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image004.gif" align=left hspace=12>By 2014,
two-thirds of all Web servers were using OpenSSL, enabling websites to securely
pass credit card and other sensitive information </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:7.7pt;margin-right:88.6pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>small handful of volunteers. A security consultant to
the U.S. Department of Defense, Steve Marquess, noticed that one contributor,
Stephen Henson, was working full time on OpenSSL. Curious, Marquess asked him
what he did for income, and was shocked to learn that Henson made one-fifth of
Marquess’s salary.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:77.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Marquess had always considered himself to be a strong
programmer, but his skills paled in comparison to Henson’s. Like others,
Marquess had mistakenly assumed that someone as talented as Henson would have a
comfortable salary to match.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:93.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Henson had been working on OpenSSL since 1998.
Marquess was newer to the project, joining in the early 2000s, and had worked
with Henson for several years before learning of his income situation.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=597 style='width:447.5pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:34.3pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:395.75pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:34.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.6pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i>world)
that the OpenSSL team was large, active, and well resourced.</i><sup>3” </sup>In
reality, OpenSSL wasn’t even able to support one person’s work.</p>
</td>
<td width=69 valign=top style='width:51.75pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:34.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>3 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;
color:black'>Email interview with </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>Steve
Marquess</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:82.45pt;margin-bottom:
5.65pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=7 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image003.gif" align=left hspace=12>Having worked
with the Department of Defense, Marquess saw how critical OpenSSL was, not just
to their software, but to other industries around the world, from enterprise to
aeronautics to health care. Until that moment, he had <i>“always assumed, (as
had the rest of the </i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:27.7pt;margin-right:90.45pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Marquess decided he wanted to help. Although he
contributed code occasionally, he realized he could fill a more critical role
on the business side. Marquess started out by arranging small consulting contracts
through an existing nonprofit to help keep OpenSSL alive in its leanest years.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>As the volume of contracts grew, Marquess
created the OpenSSL </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:94.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Software Foundation (OSF) to provide an official
vehicle for revenue. Despite the number of individuals and companies relying on
their software, OSF never received more than $2,000 in donations per year.
Gross revenues (which came from consulting and contract work) never broke $1M,
and much of that went toward security-related testing (which could cost hundreds
of thousands of dollars) and server costs.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:85.3pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>There was enough to pay the salary of one developer,
Stephen Henson. That meant that two-thirds of the Web relied on encryption
software maintained by just one full-time employee.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:91.85pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>The OpenSSL team continued to work
in relative obscurity until April 2014, when a Google engineer named Neel Mehta
stumbled upon a major flaw in OpenSSL’s software. Two days later, another
engineer at the Finnish company Codenomicon discovered the same problem. </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Both of them immediately contacted the
OpenSSL team.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:90.4pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>That bug, nicknamed Heartbleed, had been included in
a 2011 update. It had gone unnoticed for years. Heartbleed could allow any
sophisticated hacker to capture secure information being passed to vulnerable
web servers, including passwords, credit card information, and other sensitive
data.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Joseph Steinberg, a cybersecurity columnist
for <i>Forbes</i>, wrote that </p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=619 style='width:464.2pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:147.8pt'>
<td width=529 valign=top style='width:397.1pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:147.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:26.75pt;
margin-left:1.35pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>found...since commercial
traffic began to flow on the Internet.” <sup>4</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:27.2pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:1.3pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-1.3pt;line-height:
107%'>Thanks to wide media reporting, much of the nontechnical world became
familiar with the security bug, at least by name. Major services like
Instagram, Gmail and Netflix were affected by Heartbleed.<sup>5</sup>
Reporters also drew attention to OpenSSL itself, and how its team had
struggled for years to support their work. OpenSSL </p>
</td>
<td width=89 valign=top style='width:67.1pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:147.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>4 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:36.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://www.forbes.
com/sites/josephsteinberg/2014/04/10/
massive-internet-securityvulnerability-you-are-atrisk-what-you-need-to-do/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>5 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://mashable.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>com/2014/04/09/heartbleed-bug-websites-affected/#01gtseEchaqa</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:140.7pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=7 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image003.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=7
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image003.gif" align=left hspace=12>“some
might argue that [Heartbleed] is the worst vulnerability </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:76.1pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>was a known concern among security experts, but the
team did not have adequate resources or attention to address the issues.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:90.8pt;margin-bottom:
20.15pt;margin-left:2.75pt;text-indent:-.3pt;line-height:135%'>Of Heartbleed,
Marquess wrote, <i>“The mystery is not that a few overworked volunteers missed
this bug; the mystery is why it hasn’t happened more often.”</i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:94.4pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>People expressed their support by sending donations
to the foundation. Although Marquess was grateful for their enthusiasm, the
first round of donations came out to roughly $9,000: not nearly enough to
sustain a team.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Marquess took to the Internet to make an
impassioned public plea </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>for funding:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:69.1pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>These guys don’t work on OpenSSL for money. They don’t do it </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:17.65pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>for fame (who outside of
geek circles ever heard of them or </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.3pt;margin-bottom:
20.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>OpenSSL until ‘heartbleed’ [sic] hit the news?). They do it out
of pride in craftsmanship and the responsibility for something they believe in.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:52.35pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>It takes nerves of steel to work for many years on hundreds of
thousands of lines of very complex code, with every line of code </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:83.65pt;margin-bottom:
20.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>you touch visible to the world, knowing that code is used by
banks, firewalls, weapons systems, web sites, smart phones, industry,
government, everywhere. Knowing that you’ll be ignored and unappreciated until
something goes wrong.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:84.7pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:39.1pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.9pt;line-height:
132%'><b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:132%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>There should be at least a half dozen full time OpenSSL team
members, not just one, able to concentrate on the care and feeding of OpenSSL
without having to hustle commercial work. </span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:132%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>If you’re a corporate or government decision maker in a position
to do something about it, give it some thought. Please. </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:128%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'> </span><i><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>I’m
getting old and weary and I’d like to retire someday. </span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;color:black'>6 </span></sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:128%'>6</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'><img width=9 height=1 id="Group 46698"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image004.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:128%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:3.95pt;
margin-left:399.35pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://veridicalsystems.
com/blog/of-money-responsibility-and-pride/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:85.35pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>After Heartbleed, OpenSSL finally got more of the
funding it needed—at least for now. They currently have enough money to pay
four full-time employees for three years. But a year and a half into that
funding, Marquess isn’t sure what will come next.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:94.35pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Marquess said that Heartbleed was a boon for them,
admitting it was a “little ironic” that publicity had helped elevate their
cause. But after funding runs out and the world moves on, Marquess thinks </p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection5>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.6pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>they could be back in the same situation as pre-Heartbleed,
and perhaps even worse: the client work that took Marquess years to build has
dried up, since the team works full-time on OpenSSL right now and no longer has
time for contracts.<sup>7</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.65pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Marquess himself is approaching retirement. He is the only
person willing to handle the business and operational tasks associated with
OpenSSL, including taxes, sourcing client work, and managing donors. The rest
of his team prefers to focus on writing and maintaining code. He can’t hire
someone else into his position when he retires, either, because he currently
doesn’t take an income. Marquess remarked, <i>“I don’t know that we can hold
this together for more than a couple of years”.</i><sup>8</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>OpenSSL’s story is not unique, and in many ways, Marquess
thinks they are the lucky ones. Countless other projects continue to go unheard
of and unsupported. These projects make up the critical digital infrastructure
that powers today’s software, and in turn, every aspect of our daily lives.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Checking email, reading the news, checking stock prices,
shopping online, going to the doctor, calling customer service—whether we
realize it or not, everything we do is made possible by projects like OpenSSL.
Without them, the technology that modern society relies upon simply could not
function.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Many of these projects are built and maintained by
volunteers and offered to the public for free. Anyone, from Facebook to an
amateur programmer, can use that code to build their own apps. And they do.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>If it sounds unbelievable that, as Marquess
puts it, a <i>“ragtag group of </i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>7 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=8 height=1 id="Group 47024"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image005.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Phone interview with Steve </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:147.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Marquess</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>8 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=9 height=1 id="Group 47027"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image004.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Email interview with Steve </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Marquess</span><br clear=all
style='page-break-before:always'>
</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><i>amateurs could outcompete huge corporations with their
money and resources,” </i><sup>9</sup> consider how this work reflects the rise
of peer-to-peer collaboration around the world.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Unlikely startups like Uber or AirBnB exploded into major
corporate powerhouses in just a few years, challenging longstanding industries
like transportation and hospitality. Musicians make a name for themselves
through YouTube or Soundcloud instead of big record labels. Creative people
fund their ideas through crowdfunding platforms like Kickstarter or Patreon.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Similarly, these infrastructure projects sprang from
passionate, creative developers who thought <i>“I could do this better,”</i>
collaborating to build and release code to the world. The difference is that
millions of people rely on this code to lead functional daily lives.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Because code is less charismatic than
a hit YouTube video or Kickstarter campaign, there is little public awareness
of and appreciation for this work. As a result, there is not nearly enough
institutional support for the output that sparked an information revolution. </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>But we can’t ignore it for much longer.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>In the past five years, our reliance on software, and the
free and public code that supports it, has accelerated. Technology has worked
its way into every aspect of our lives. And the more people use software, the
more software gets built, and the more work is required to maintain it all.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Every successful startup needs public infrastructure to
succeed, yet no one company is motivated to act on its own. As the world blazes
ahead into a modern age of startups, code and technology, </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>9 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=9 height=1 id="Group 46689"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image004.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Phone interview with Steve </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Marquess</span><br clear=all
style='page-break-before:always'>
</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>infrastructure continues to lag behind. The cracks in the
foundation are not obvious right now, but they are widening. After years of
unprecedented growth that propelled us into a new era of wealth and prosperity,
we must act now in order to ensure that the world we built in such a short
period of time does not come unexpectedly crashing down.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>To understand how to protect our future, first we need to
understand software itself.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection6>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:574.25pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:-105.15pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:
107%'><img width=818 height=1056 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image006.gif"><br
clear=ALL>
<br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</p>
<h1 style='margin-left:.2pt'>How software gets built</h1>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:96.75pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Every website or mobile app we use, no matter how
simple, is made up of many smaller components, just as a building is made up of
bricks and concrete.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.15pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>For example, imagine you want to post a photo to
Facebook. You open your Facebook mobile app, which triggers Facebook’s software
to show your news feed.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>You upload a photo from your phone, add a
comment, then hit </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>“submit.” Another part of Facebook’s
software, responsible for storing </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>data, remembers who you are and posts the photo to your
profile.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.15pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Finally, a third part of Facebook’s software takes
the information that you typed into your phone and shows it to all your friends
around the world.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.95pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Although these interactions take
place on Facebook, Facebook did not actually build all the pieces necessary to
make it possible for you to post to their app. Instead, they use free, public
code, made available on the Internet by volunteers for anybody to use. Facebook
does not publicly list the projects they use, but another company they own,
Instagram, lists and thanks some of these projects on </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'>their homepage and mobile app.<sup>10 </sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>10</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=10 height=1 id="Group 46655"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:107%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:15.9pt;
margin-left:399.35pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://instagram.com/
about/legal/libraries/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:95.35pt;margin-bottom:
24.15pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Using public code is more efficient for a company
like Facebook than building every piece themselves. Building software is like
constructing a building. A construction company wouldn’t build its hammers and
drills from scratch, or source and chop all of the lumber themselves. Instead,
it buys the tools from a hardware store, and the lumber from a third-party
supplier, to make the job go faster.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:96.85pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Thanks to permissive licenses, companies like
Facebook or Instagram are not obligated to pay for this code, but are free to
profit handsomely from it. This is not unlike a trucking company (Instagram)
using a highway (public code) to transport goods for commercial purposes
(Instagram’s app).</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:65.2pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:2.75pt;text-indent:-.3pt;line-height:135%'>Mike Krieger, one
of Instagram’s cofounders, emphasized this point in 2013, encouraging other
founders to <i>“borrow instead of building whenever possible. There are
hundreds of fantastic [tools]...that can save you time and let you focus on
actually building out your product.” </i><sup>11 </sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:135%'>11</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:135%;color:black'><img width=8 height=1 id="Group 49334"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image005.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:135%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:399.25pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://opbeat.com/blog/
posts/picking-tech-for-your-</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:50.4pt;
margin-bottom:3.95pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>startup/
</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Some tools that a software company uses
are:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:2.85pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'> </p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=516
style='width:387.0pt;margin-left:2.85pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:103.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.7pt;height:103.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:14.35pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.45pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Frameworks:</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> Software frameworks provide basic
scaffolding and structure. Think of it as the blueprint for the entire
application. Like a blueprint, a framework lays out how the application might
look on mobile, or how information gets saved into the database. Examples
include Rails and Django.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.7pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:107.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.7pt;height:107.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:19.3pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.35pt;line-height:126%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:126%'>Languages:</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:126%'> Programming languages are the
communication backbone of software, like construction workers on a building
site using English to communicate. Languages help different software
components perform actions and talk to one another. For example, if you
create an account on a website and click “sign up,” that application might
use the languages JavaScript and Ruby to tell the database to save your
information. </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.1pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Popular examples of languages
include JavaScript, Python and C.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.7pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:69.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.7pt;height:69.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:15.3pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.45pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Libraries: </span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Libraries are “prefabricated”
pieces of code that make it faster to write software, just as a construction
company might buy prefabricated windows instead of building them from
scratch. For example, instead </span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:69.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.7pt;height:69.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:16.6pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.45pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.1pt;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>of a developer
writing their own user login system for an application, they can use a
library called OAuth. Instead of writing their own code to visualize data on
a website, they can use a library called d3.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.7pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:73.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.7pt;height:73.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:21.1pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.55pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.3pt;line-height:
126%'><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:126%'>Databases: Databases
store information (for example, user profiles, email addresses, or credit
card information) so that it can be used throughout the application. Whenever
an application needs to remember </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.55pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>something about you, it stores that
information in the database. Popular examples of databases include MySQL and
PostgreSQL.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.7pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:154.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.7pt;height:154.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:20.7pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.2pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Web and application servers:</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> Web and application servers
facilitate various requests that users make on the Internet. They can be
thought of as dispatchers or telephone operators. For example, if you type a
URL into your browser bar, a Web server will send back the associated page. If
you send a message to a friend on Facebook, your message first goes to an
application server, which determines who you are trying to contact, then
routes your message to your friend’s account. Popular examples of Web servers
are Apache and Nginx.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=621 style='width:466.1pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:47.8pt'>
<td width=529 valign=top style='width:397.05pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:47.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'>2010 for $212M.<sup>12</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=92 valign=top style='width:69.05pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:47.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>12 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://techcrunch.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>com/2010/12/08/breakingsalesforce-buys-heroku-for212-million-in-cash/
</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.6pt;margin-bottom:
39.95pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=9 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image004.gif" align=left hspace=12>Some of these
tools, such as servers and databases, cost money, especially as companies
scale. This makes them easier to monetize. For example, Heroku, a cloud-based
platform that offers server and database support, offers basic services for
free, but charges for higher levels of data or traffic. Heroku powers many
major websites, including Toyota and Macy’s, and was acquired by Salesforce.com
in </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:93.4pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Other types of developer tools, such as frameworks,
many libraries, and programming languages, are harder to charge for, and are
often built and maintained by volunteers.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Because these types of tools look more like
information goods than </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:100.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>services that can be turned on or off, charging for
them would severely limit their adoption. As a result, anyone—whether a billion-dollar
company or a teenage coder—can use these components to build their own software
for free.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:106.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>For example, one of the libraries that Instagram
uses, according to its homepage, is Appirater. Appirater is a library that
makes it easy to remind iPhone users to rate a mobile app. It was created in
2009 by Arash Payan, a freelance developer based in Los Angeles. Payan does not
make any income from the project.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:90.75pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>It is the equivalent of lumberyards, concrete plants
and hardware stores donating their raw materials to a construction company,
then continuing to support the company’s needs.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection7>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.55pt;margin-bottom:
12.4pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>How not charging for software transformed society</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:85.65pt;margin-bottom:
20.15pt;margin-left:2.75pt;text-indent:-.3pt;line-height:135%'>An expected
first reaction is: <i>“Why did these developers make their software free? Why
not just charge for it?”</i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:94.2pt;margin-bottom:
25.45pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The reasons for public software lie in its rich
political and social history. But first, let’s examine a hard truth: our
society wouldn’t be where it is today if developers hadn’t made it free.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:
8.5pt;margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span
style='font-size:18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Free software makes it
exponentially cheaper and easier to build software.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.6pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Uber, a transportation service, recently announced
that some developers had built a way to request cars through Slack, a team
collaboration app, instead of using Uber’s own mobile app. The project was
completed in 48 hours by a team of developers at App Academy, a coding school.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:78.8pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:2.75pt;text-indent:-.3pt;line-height:135%'>Uber noted that
the team was able to get the project done quickly because they <i>“implemented
open libraries such as rails, geocoder, and unicorn [sic] to speed up
development and build on a solid </i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i>foundation.”</i><sup>13 </sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>13</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=10 height=1 id="Group 50908"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:107%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:3.95pt;
margin-left:398.0pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://devblog.uber.com/
uber-slack-a-weekend-a-story-of-open-apis/ </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.4pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>In other words, the amount of coding that the team
had to do themselves was greatly reduced because they were able to use free
libraries built by others.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=627 style='width:470.35pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:13.0cm'>
<td width=529 valign=top style='width:397.0pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:13.0cm'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:27.05pt;
margin-left:1.45pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>geographic coordinates.<sup>14</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:16.3pt;margin-bottom:
23.35pt;margin-left:1.3pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:134%'>Unicorn is a
server, built in 2009, which is maintained by a team of seven contributors
listed on its website and headed by a developer named Eric Wong.<sup>15</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:21.8pt;margin-bottom:
20.0pt;margin-left:1.35pt;text-indent:-.15pt;line-height:136%'>It’s easier
than ever to build new software, because there are more prefabricated pieces
of code to draw from. To return again to the construction metaphor instead of
constructing every piece of a building from scratch, one can simply buy a
prefabricated framework, foundation and walls, then put them together like
Legos.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:30.9pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.75pt;line-height:107%'>As
a result, new developers are minted every day, even if they themselves don’t
necessarily know how to build the tools from scratch. The Bureau of Labor
Statistics expects the number of employed software developers to rise 22%
from 2012 to 2022—much faster than average, compared to other occupations.<sup>16</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=98 valign=top style='width:73.35pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:13.0cm'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>14 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:44.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://www.alexreisner.com/ about</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>15 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;
color:black'>http://unicorn.bogomips.org/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:212.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>CONTRIBUTORS.html</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>16 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://www.bls.gov/ooh/
computer-and-information-technology/software-developers.htm</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.1pt;margin-bottom:
369.65pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=10 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=10
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=10 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif" align=left
hspace=12>Ruby Geocoder, for example, is a library built in 2010 and maintained
by a freelance developer named Alex Reisner. Geocoder makes it easy for an
application to look up street addresses and </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:102.2pt;margin-bottom:
8.5pt;margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span
style='font-size:18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Free software is
directly responsible for today’s current startup renaissance.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:123.9pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.45pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:
inter-ideograph;text-indent:.05pt;line-height:97%'>The cost of starting a
company has dropped dramatically since the first dotcom boom in the late 1990s.
Venture capitalist and former entrepreneur Mark Suster reflected on his
experience in a <b><span style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:97%;font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif;color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:97%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>million
in infrastructure just to get started and another $2.5 </span></i>2011 blog
post:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:21.1pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>When I built my first company starting in 1999 it cost $2.5 </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.45pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>million in team costs to code, launch, manage, market &amp; sell
our software. […]</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:109.2pt;margin-bottom:
20.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>The first major change in our industry was imperceptible to us
as an industry. It was driven by the introduction of opensource software, most
notably what was called the LAMP stack. Linux (instead of UNIX), Apache (web
server software), MySQL (instead of Oracle) and PHP. Of course there were variants
– we preferred PostGres to MySQL and many people used other programming
languages than PHP.</span></i></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=623 style='width:467.2pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:357.55pt'>
<td width=529 valign=top style='width:397.0pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:357.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:24.75pt;
margin-left:36.7pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>90% disruption in cost spawns innovation – believe me.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>17</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:28.4pt;margin-bottom:
20.0pt;margin-left:1.25pt;text-indent:-1.25pt;line-height:136%'>The
availability of free software components today (as well as cheaper hosting
and cloud services, like Amazon Web Services and Heroku) means that a
technology startup no longer requires millions of dollars to get off the
ground. Entrepreneurs can conceivably release a product and find a market
without spending a single dollar, then raise money from venture capitalists
only after they’ve shown strong signs of demand.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:27.7pt;margin-bottom:
22.8pt;margin-left:.9pt;text-indent:-.15pt;line-height:135%'>Alan Schaaf, the
founder of Imgur, a popular image-sharing site and one of the top 50 most-trafficked
sites in the world, famously said that the only money he ever spent to start
the company was seven dollars to purchase the domain name. Imgur was
profitable, and Schaaf did not take any outside money for 5 years before
raising $40 million from VC firm Andreessen Horowitz in 2014.<sup>18</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.9pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>Venture
capitalists and other institutional investors, in turn, have </p>
</td>
<td width=94 valign=top style='width:70.2pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:357.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>17 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:248.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://www.bothsidesofthetable.com/2011/06/28/
understanding-changes-in-the-software-venture-capital-industries/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>18 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://articles.latimes.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>com/2014/apr/03/business/
la-fi-tn-imgur-40-millionfunding-20140402 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:102.7pt;margin-bottom:
3.15pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><img width=9
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image004.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=10 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif" align=left
hspace=12><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Open source became a movement – a mentality. Suddenly
infrastructure software was nearly free. We paid 10% of the normal costs for
the software and that money was for software support. A </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:7.7pt;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>started writing smaller checks to
companies, giving rise to new </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:11.6pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>subsets of investing, including:</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=516
style='width:387.0pt;margin-left:1.6pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:52.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.55pt;height:52.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:17.45pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.75pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.35pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Seed stage:</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> Venture firms providing the first
round of funding, rather than later-stage growth capital</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.55pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:22.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.55pt;height:22.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.7pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Micro VCs:</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> Venture firms loosely defined as
less than $50 million under management</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.55pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:69.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.55pt;height:69.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:20.35pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.7pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.7pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Accelerators:</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> Firms that provide small amounts
of capital, often less than $50,000, as well as advice and mentorship to
early-stage companies</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:102.3pt;margin-bottom:
25.45pt;margin-left:.95pt'>$10M can fund a hundred companies today, compared to
one or two in the 1990s.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:
7.5pt;margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span
style='font-size:18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Free software made it
easier for people of all demographics to learn to code, making technology
accessible to the world.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:107.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>If you wanted to learn how to code at home today, you
might start by learning Ruby on Rails. Rails is a popular software framework
and Ruby is a programming language. Anyone with Internet access can install
these tools on any computer for free. Because they are free, they are also very
popular, which means there is plenty of information online to help you get
started, from formal tutorials to question-and-answer forums. This means that
learning how to code is as accessible as teaching oneself to read and write
English or French.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:94.55pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>By comparison, software frameworks
and languages that were not open source required paying for access, using
specific operating systems or other tools, and agreeing to licensing
constraints that could affect patents for any software built using the framework.
</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.05pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Today, it is difficult to find examples of frameworks
and languages that are not open source. One of the most famous examples of a
proprietary software framework is .NET, developed and released in 2002. In
2014, Microsoft announced that they were releasing a version of .NET as an open
source project, called .NET Core.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:125.1pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=177
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image008.gif" align=left hspace=12>Audrey
Eschright, a software developer, wrote about how open source software helped
her learn to code as a teenager in the late 1990s:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.35pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>I wanted to learn to program but I didn’t have money. Not the
college student version of not having money—my family situation was low-income,
but also highly chaotic….This is going to seem strange to anyone [today], but
at the time there were basically two options for someone who wanted to write
real software: you could use a PC with Windows and pay extra for </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.7pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Microsoft’s development tools, or you could have access to a
Unix system and use gcc….So my goal became to get access to accounts on Unix
systems so I could learn how to write code </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:128%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'> </span><i><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>and
do cool stuff.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;
color:black'>19 </span></sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:128%'>19</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'><img width=10 height=1 id="Group 50266"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:128%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:15.9pt;
margin-left:398.0pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://lifeofaudrey.com/
essays/love_and_money.html</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:109.4pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=177
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image008.gif" align=left hspace=12>Jeff Atwood, a
longtime .NET developer, described his decision to use Ruby for a new software
project, Discourse, in 2013:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:96.1pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Getting up and running with a Microsoft stack is just plain too
hard for a developer in, say, Argentina, or Nepal, or Bulgaria. Open source
operating systems, languages, and tool chains are the great equalizer, the
basis for the next great generation of </span></i></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=625 style='width:468.85pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:485.8pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:396.1pt;padding:.1pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:485.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:25.9pt;
margin-left:36.85pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>change the world.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'>20</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:35.35pt;margin-bottom:
20.0pt;margin-left:.3pt;text-indent:-.15pt;line-height:136%'>With the
explosion of startups have come a number of initiatives to teach people to
code, whether they are children, teenagers, underserved minorities, women or
career switchers. Some examples include Women Who Code, Django Girls, Black
Girls Code, One Month and Dev Bootcamp.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:29.85pt;margin-bottom:
19.55pt;margin-left:.35pt;text-indent:-.35pt;line-height:139%'>Some of these
organizations are free, while others charge tuition. All of them rely upon
free software to teach their students. For example, Django Girls has taught
over 2,000 women to code, in 49 countries around the world.<sup>21</sup>
Although the organization did not develop Django themselves, they are able to
use Django, which students download and use for free, in their curriculum</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:19.05pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.35pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>Dev
Bootcamp teaches career switchers to code, preparing everyone from English
teachers to military veterans to become professional software developers. The
program costs $12-14,000. Dev Bootcamp teaches Ruby, JavaScript, Ruby on
Rails and SQL, among other components. All of these components are free for
students to download and use, and Dev Bootcamp does not have to pay to use
these materials. Dev Bootcamp was recently acquired by Kaplan for an
undisclosed sum in 2014.<sup>22</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=97 valign=top style='width:72.75pt;padding:.1pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:485.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>20 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:184.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://blog.codinghorror. com/why-ruby/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:9.6pt;margin-bottom:
188.0pt;margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:218%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:218%'>21 </span><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:218%;color:black'>https://djangogirls.org/ </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>22 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://www.edsurge.com/
news/2014-06-25-devbootcamp-no-longer-bootstrapped-acquired-by-kaplan</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:481.1pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=8
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image005.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left
hspace=12><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>programmers all over the world who are going to help us </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.4pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>If such critical pieces of software were not free,
people from all walks of life would not be able to take part in today’s
technology renaissance. There are still numerous social and economic barriers
that prevent many more from participating, as well as costs associated with
physical equipment like laptops and an Internet connection, but the programming
tools themselves do not cost money.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection8>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.55pt;margin-bottom:
12.4pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>A brief history of free and public software and the people who
made it</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:89.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Now that we’ve covered how making software free
benefits society, let’s look at how the software itself came about.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Although we’ve used the term “free software” to refer
to software that does not cost any money to its users, the term “free software”
is actually a highly contextualized term that refers specifically to the
software’s license properties. Free software advocates emphasize that “free”
refers to a political freedom rather than the price, and sometimes use the
Spanish word <i>libre</i> (meaning freedom, as opposed to <i>gratis</i>, the
Spanish word for free price) to clarify the distinction.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.9pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>In the 1970s, when computers were still a nascent
technology, programmers had to build their own computers and write custom
software themselves. Software was not yet standardized and was not considered
to be a monetizable product.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=623 style='width:467.55pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:47.8pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:395.7pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:47.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'>share by 1986.<sup>23</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=96 valign=top style='width:71.85pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:47.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>23 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://arstechnica.com/business/2012/08/from-altair-toipad-35-years-of-personalcomputer-market-share/2/</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.85pt;margin-bottom:
39.9pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12>In 1981, IBM
introduced the “IBM PC,” or “Personal Computer,” bringing hardware to a mass
market. Within a couple of years, custom computer setups fell away as everybody
adopted the IBM standard. IBM became the dominant computer within a highly
fractured personal computer market, capturing over half of market </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:93.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Along with standardized hardware, then, came an
opportunity for standardized software. Suddenly everyone wanted to turn
software into a business. IBM hired a then-unknown company called Microsoft to
write the operating system for its new PC. That operating system, MS-DOS, was
released in 1981. Other companies began to follow suit, offering software under
commercial licenses. These licenses prevented the user from copying, modifying
or redistributing the software.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Proprietary software still exists today: for example,
Adobe Photoshop, Microsoft Windows, or GoToMeeting. While proprietary software
can be profitable for the company that builds and licenses the product, its
restrictions also limit its scope and distribution. Any changes to the
software’s design or implementation have to originate from the company itself.
And proprietary software is expensive, often costing hundreds of dollars and
permitting the designated purchaser to use only that copy.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.5pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Understandably, some computer scientists felt
concerned about the closed and proprietary direction that software was taking,
believing that it undermined the true potential of software. Richard Stallman,
a programmer at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, felt particularly
strongly about the need for software to be free and modifiable.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.05pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Over the next couple of years, as several of his
colleagues began working on proprietary software projects, Stallman felt he
could not ignore the situation any longer. In 1983, he launched GNU, a free
operating system, and in doing so sparked what came to be known as the “free
software movement,” which galvanized a group of people who believed that
software could have a greater reach and benefit to society if it were made freely
available. Stallman later founded the Free Software Foundation in 1985 to
support GNU and other free software efforts.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>The Free Software Foundation defines free
software as “software </p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=616 style='width:462.0pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:34.3pt'>
<td width=527 valign=top style='width:395.55pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:34.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.05pt;
line-height:107%'>that gives the user the freedom to share, study and modify
it.”<sup>24</sup> GNU defines four freedoms associated with such software:</p>
</td>
<td width=89 valign=top style='width:66.4pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:34.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>24 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://www.fsf.org/about/
what-is-free-software </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=516 style='width:387.0pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:52.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 36.05pt;height:52.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:14.15pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.25pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.15pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Freedom 0:</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> The freedom to run the program as
you wish, for any purpose.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 36.05pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:22.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 36.05pt;height:22.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:10.7pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.1pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Freedom 1:</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> The freedom to study how the
program works, and change it so it does your computing as you wish.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 36.05pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:22.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 36.05pt;height:22.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.2pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.2pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Freedom 2: </span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>The freedom to redistribute copies
so you can help your neighbor.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 36.05pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:69.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 36.05pt;height:69.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:9.9pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.2pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Freedom 3:</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> The freedom to distribute copies
of your modified versions to others. By doing this you can give the whole
community a chance to benefit from your changes.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>25</span></sup></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:64.0pt;
margin-bottom:3.45pt;margin-left:3.35pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:107%'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>25 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
43.9pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html
</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:106.5pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The free software movement was, and continues to be,
deeply rooted in social advocacy. In 1998, when Netscape released the source
code for its popular browser, the conversation began to shift from politics to
technology.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.15pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Some technologists believed that focusing on the
practical benefits of free software would help bring its message to a wider
audience. For example, they pointed out that free software was cheaper to build
and could lead to superior software, because the public can find bugs and
contribute fixes. This type of pragmatism was distinct from the moral
obligation that Stallman and his supporters believed they had to promote free
software.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=604 style='width:453.25pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:377.6pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:396.1pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:377.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:18.6pt;margin-bottom:
18.15pt;margin-left:.35pt;text-indent:.2pt;line-height:149%'>term “open
source.”<sup>26</sup> Shortly after, two attendees, Bruce Perens and Eric
Raymond, created the Open Source Initiative.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:29.9pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.15pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.15pt;line-height:
136%'>Software whose source code is publicly available is called “open
source.” It is analogous to being able to open up the hood of a car and see
what's inside, instead of having the engine sealed off from view. Open source
licenses always include a provision that allows </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:25.35pt;margin-bottom:
20.0pt;margin-left:.35pt;text-indent:.2pt;line-height:136%'>the public to
use, modify, and redistribute the code. In this sense, there is no legal
difference between free software and open source licenses. Indeed, some
people have called open source a “marketing campaign” for free software.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:35.45pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.35pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>However,
the most important distinction is the differing cultures that each movement
created. The open source software movement broke away from the social and
political associations with free software by instead focusing on the
practical benefits of software development and encouraging wider creative and
business applications. As Stallman himself wrote, <i>“Open source is a
development methodology; free software is a social movement.” </i><sup>27</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=76 valign=top style='width:57.2pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:377.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>26 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:328.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://opensource.org/ history </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>27 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:82.75pt;margin-bottom:
367.95pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=10
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif" align=left hspace=12>These
technologists gathered in Palo Alto for a strategy session. Christine Peterson,
a nanotechnologist in attendance, suggested the </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:7.95pt;
margin-left:399.25pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/open-source-missesthe-point.en.html
</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:100.3pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Although “free software” and “open source software”
are often discussed together, they are politically distinct, the former being
more closely associated with ethics and the latter with pragmatism. (The
remainder of this paper will use the term “open source” to emphasize the
critical role it plays in software infrastructure.)</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.0pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Open source created space for growing distinctions
and styles of software development, free from ethical complexities. One
organization might release its source code to the public, but only accept
changes from a couple of contributors. Another organization might require that
the code is developed in public and accept changes from anyone, so that more
people could take part in the process. In 1997, Raymond wrote an influential
essay called The Cathedral and the Bazaar (later published as a book in 1999)
which explored these styles.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:106.85pt;margin-bottom:
25.4pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Today, open source has become a popular software
practice for many reasons, in terms of both efficiency and cost. It’s also how
much of digital infrastructure gets built. We’ve discussed how making this
software more freely available has benefitted all of society, but open source
has benefits for its creators, as well.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:
5.25pt;margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span
style='font-size:18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Open source is cheaper
to build.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.7pt;margin-bottom:
25.4pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Before open source software existed, technology firms
treated software like any other paid product: a team of employees built new
software internally, then sold it to the public. While this meant software had
a clear business model, it also came with increased development costs.
Proprietary software requires a full-time paid team to support its development,
including developers, designers, marketers, and lawyers. It’s far cheaper to
simply crowdsource software, built and maintained by a community of volunteer
developers.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:
5.25pt;margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span
style='font-size:18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Open source is easier to
distribute.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.7pt;margin-bottom:
29.65pt;margin-left:.95pt'>People are more likely to adopt software that is
free to use and modify than software that costs hundreds of dollars to license
and was developed in a black box. Not only will developers want to use it for
free, but they might be inclined to tell their friends to use it as well,
amplifying the effects of its distribution.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:
5.25pt;margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span
style='font-size:18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Open source is flexible
to customize.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:95.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.75pt;text-indent:2.95pt'>Open source software is free to
copy and modify for one’s own purposes, with various levels of permissiveness.
This means that if a developer wants to make improvements to a piece of
software, he or she can copy the project and change it. (This practice is
called “forking.”) </p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=626 style='width:469.35pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:179.8pt'>
<td width=527 valign=top style='width:395.15pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:179.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:34.55pt;margin-bottom:
20.05pt;margin-left:.15pt;text-indent:.2pt;line-height:149%'>powers 23% of
the world’s websites<sup>28</sup>), <i>PostgreSQL</i> (one of the world’s
most popular and fast-growing databases<sup>29</sup>), <i>Ubuntu</i>
(operating system used by 10% of the world’s websites<sup>30</sup>), and <i>Firefox</i>
(one of the most popular web browsers in the world<sup>31</sup>).</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:22.45pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.1pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:
107%'>WordPress began as an offshoot of an existing blogging project, b2
(also known as cafelog). Two software developers, Matt Mullenweg and Mike
Little, decided they wanted a better version of b2 and subsequently forked
the project. Mullenweg decided to fork b2, </p>
</td>
<td width=99 valign=top style='width:74.25pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:179.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>28 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.0pt;
margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ WordPress</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>29 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://www.zdnet.com/
article/as-dbms-wars-continue-postgresql-shows-mostmomentum/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>30 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.8pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://w3techs.com/technologies/details/os-ubuntu/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>all/all</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>31 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.8pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://www.netmarketshare.
com/browser-market-share. aspx?qprid=0&amp;qpcustomd=0</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:98.8pt;margin-bottom:
2.4pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left
hspace=12><img width=10 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif"
align=left hspace=12>Many popular projects started as a modification of an
existing piece of software, including <i>WordPress</i> (content management
system that </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:5.45pt;margin-right:80.25pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=177
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image008.gif" align=left hspace=12>rather than
another project called TextPattern, because b2’s licenses were more permissive.
His original thought process from 2003 is described below:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.1pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>What to do? Well, TextPattern looks like everything I could ever
want, but it doesn’t look like it’s going to be licensed under something
politically I could agree with. Fortunately, b2/ cafelog is GPL [GNU General
Public License, a free software license], which means that I could use the
existing codebase to create a fork.[...]</span></i></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection9>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:22.5pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>The work would never be lost, as if I fell of [sic] the face of
the planet a year from now, whatever code I made would be free to the world, and
if someone else wanted to pick it up they could.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;color:black'>32</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:25.45pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>If software were developed in a closed, proprietary
environment, developers would have no ability to change that software, unless
they worked at the company. If they tried to build their own improved version
to imitate the original, they might face intellectual property concerns. With
open source software, the developer can simply change the software him- or
herself and release it to the public, as Mullenweg did. Open source software,
then, enables rapid proliferation of ideas.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:
8.5pt;margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span
style='font-size:18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Open source gives
employees more bargaining power.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.9pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Software takes time to learn, whether it’s a new programming
language or framework. If every company used a proprietary set of tools,
developers would be less inclined to change jobs, because their technical
skills only apply to that one place of employment. They would have to be
retrained in a new technology at their next place of employment.<sup>33</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>When companies use open source technology, a developer has a
reusable set of skills, which leads to more freedom to work wherever he or she
prefers. For example, multiple companies might use the same Ruby programming
language in their software. In addition, if the company’s product itself is
open source, the output belongs to the developer as much as it does the
company. The developer can take their work with them if they choose to leave
the company (versus, for example, being constrained by a non-disclosure </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>32 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 47949"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:335.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://ma.tt/2003/01/
the-blogging-software-dilemma/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>33 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 47951"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Thanks to Karl Fogel for reminding me of
this benefit.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:13.25pt;margin-bottom:
25.45pt;margin-left:.95pt'>agreement, if the code were proprietary). All of
these benefits give the employee more agency than he or she would have had with
proprietary software. Many companies today advertise their use of open source
software as a recruiting tactic, because it favors the developer.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.5pt;
margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span style='font-size:
18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Open source has the potential to be more
stable and secure.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Theoretically, when a software project has many active
contributors and a thriving community, the code should be less vulnerable to
security flaws and disruptions in service. That’s because more people would
ideally be reviewing the code, looking for bugs and fixing any problems that
they see. By contrast, in a proprietary software environment, the only people
who would see the code would be the team of people developing it. Instead of,
say, 20 employees looking at the code at Oracle, a popular open source project
could have 2,000 volunteers reviewing the code for vulnerabilities. (Note that
this belief does not always match reality, and has created the opposite
problem: people mistakenly believing that more people are reviewing open source
software than actually are, when in reality nobody is taking responsibility.
This will be discussed in a later section.)</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Open source software clearly has a number of benefits. How
do these projects collectively fit into a broader ecosystem?</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection10>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:577.35pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:-105.85pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:
107%'><img width=818 height=1056 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image010.gif"><br
clear=ALL>
<br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.55pt;margin-bottom:
12.4pt;margin-left:3.15pt;text-indent:-2.8pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>What is digital infrastructure, and how does it get built?</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Earlier in this report, we compared building software
to constructing a building. Those public software components are what
collectively form our digital infrastructure. To understand this concept,
consider how physical infrastructure works.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:108.25pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Everybody relies upon a number of physical
infrastructure projects to facilitate our day-to-day lives. Turning our lights
on, driving to work, washing dishes: we may not often think about where our
water, roads or electricity come from, but we have physical infrastructure to
thank. Private and public partners work together to build and maintain our
transportation, sewage, water, electric, and communication systems.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Similarly, although we do not often see or think
about the apps and software we use on a daily basis, all of them rely upon free
and public code to function. Together, in an increasingly digital society,
these open source projects make up our digital infrastructure.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:97.65pt;margin-bottom:
25.4pt;margin-left:.95pt'>However, there are several major differences between
physical and digital infrastructure, which affect how the latter is built and
sustained. In particular, there are differences in <i>cost</i>, <i>maintenance</i>,
and <i>governance</i>.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:139.5pt;margin-bottom:
8.5pt;margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span
style='font-size:18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Digital infrastructure
is faster and cheaper to build.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Building physical infrastructure is
notoriously expensive. These </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:117.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>projects are physically large in scale and can take
months or years to complete.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=622 style='width:466.35pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:377.6pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:395.75pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:377.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:27.35pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>infrastructure.<sup>34</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:35.85pt;margin-bottom:
22.45pt;margin-left:.05pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:137%'>Proposing and
funding new physical infrastructure projects can be an extended political
process. Transportation funding has been a contentious topic in the United
States for the past decade, where the federal government faces a $16 billion
shortfall for transportation funding.<sup>35</sup> U.S. Congress recently
passed the first multi-year transportation bill in a decade, setting aside
$305B for highways, after years of political obstacles that prevented funding
infrastructure from being funded more than two years at a time.<sup>36</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:23.65pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.05pt;line-height:107%'>Even
after a new infrastructure project has been earmarked and funded, it can take
years to complete, fraught with uncertainties and unforeseen obstacles. The
Central Artery/Tunnel project in Boston, Massachusetts, also known as the Big
Dig, took nine years from planning to initial construction. Its projected
cost was $2.8 billion, with a scheduled completion date for 1998. In reality,
the project ended up costing $14.6 billion and was not completed until 2007,
making it the most expensive highway project in the United States.<sup>37</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=94 valign=top style='width:70.6pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:377.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>34 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:88.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://www.cbo.gov/publication/49910</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>35 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:120%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:120%;color:black'>http://thehill.com/policy/
transportation/255264-mccarthy-were-going-to-makesure-we-get-the-highwaybill-done
</span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:120%'>36 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:132.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://www.wsj.com/
articles/house-passesfive-year-transportationbill-1449167609</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>37 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.1pt;margin-bottom:
367.95pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left
hspace=12><img width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"
align=left hspace=12>The United States federal government spent $96 billion on
infrastructure projects in 2014, and state and local governments spent a
combined $320 billion in the same year. Slightly less than half (43 percent) of
that spending went towards new construction; the remainder was spent on
operations and upkeep of existing </p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.45pt;
margin-bottom:.15pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:53.65pt;
margin-bottom:15.95pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Big_Dig</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:85.65pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>By contrast, digital
infrastructure does not have any of the costs associated with building physical
infrastructure, such as zoning a location or purchasing materials. This makes
it easy for anyone to propose a new idea and get started in very little time.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection11>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.55pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>MySQL, the second most popular database in the world<sup>38</sup>
and part of a critical collection of tools that helped launch the first tech
boom, was published by its authors, Michael Widenius and David Axmark, in May
1995. It took less than two years to develop.<sup>39</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Ruby, a programming language, took
less than three years from its initial conception in February 1993 to public
release in December </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:28.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>1995. Its author, computer scientist Yukihiro Matsumoto,
decided to create the language after a conversation with his colleagues.<sup>40</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:5.25pt;
margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span style='font-size:
18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Digital infrastructure changes
frequently.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Because digital infrastructure is so cheap to build, the
barriers to entry are lower, and software tools change more frequently.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Physical infrastructure is built to
last, which is partially why these projects take so long to plan, fund, and
build. The London </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Underground, London’s public rapid transit system, was built
in 1863; the underground tunnels dug for the subway system are still in use
today.<sup>41</sup> The Brooklyn Bridge, which connects the boroughs of
Brooklyn and Manhattan in New York City, was completed in 1883 </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=531 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>38 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
15.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.zdnet.com/
article/as-dbms-wars-continue-postgresql-shows-mostmomentum/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=531 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>39 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:63.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>MySQL</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=531 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>40 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
171.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Ruby_(programming_language)</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=531 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=10 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>41 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=628 style='width:470.9pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:152.35pt'>
<td width=479 valign=top style='width:359.45pt;padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 1.35pt;
height:152.35pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:85.3pt;margin-bottom:
20.0pt;margin-left:.1pt;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:136%'>and did not
undergo any major renovations until 2010, over one hundred years later.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.15pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.1pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:
107%'>Digital infrastructure not only requires frequent maintenance and
upkeep to be compatible with other software components, but its usage and
adoption changes frequently as well. A bridge built in the middle of New York
City will have fairly consistent and guaranteed usage, commensurate with the
rise or decline of the city’s </p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:137%;color:black'>London_Underground
</span>population. But a programming language or framework could be extremely
popular for several years, then fall out of favor when something faster, more
efficient, or simply trendier comes along.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:17.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>For example, the graph below shows activity by source code
developers using several different programming languages. The language C, one
of the most fundamental and widely used languages, has dropped in market share
as newer languages have entered the market. Python and JavaScript, two
currently popular languages, are seeing a moderate rise over time. And Go,
which was developed in 2007, has seen more activity in recent years.<sup>42</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:-11.8pt;margin-bottom:
38.7pt;margin-left:-8.5pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><img width=508
height=266 id="Picture 1702" src="roads-and_filtered_files/image011.jpg"></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:48.25pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Tim Hwang, who runs the Bay Area Infrastructure Observatory,
which organizes group visits to physical infrastructure sites, remarked on the
difference in a 2015 interview with <i>California </i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:2.75pt;text-indent:-.3pt;line-height:107%'><i>Sunday Magazine:</i><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>A lot of [our] members work in tech, either on the web or on </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>42 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 49351"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Monthly code commits by language. Commits
including multiple languages are counted once for each language. Black Duck’s
Open Hub pulls from over 650,000 open source projects. Data accessed May 20,
2016. https://www.openhub.net/ languages/compare</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection12>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=626 style='width:469.2pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:157.6pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:395.8pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:157.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:25.55pt;
margin-left:36.35pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>that exists outside of the members’ day-to-day experience.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>43</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:26.3pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.05pt;line-height:107%'>Because
digital infrastructure changes so frequently, however, older projects have a
harder time finding contributors, because many developers prefer to work on
new and exciting projects. This phenomenon has been referred to as “magpie
developer” syndrome, where developers are attracted to “new and shiny”
things, instead of the technology that works best for them and their users.<sup>44</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=98 valign=top style='width:73.45pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:157.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>43 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:100.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://story.californiasunday. com/tim-hwang-infrastructure-tourist</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>44 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:102.55pt;margin-bottom:
148.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left
hspace=12><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>software. As a result, they work on things that don’t last very
long. Their approach is, ‘We just hacked it, and we pushed it out live,’ or ‘We
just released it, and we can work out bugs later.’ A lot of infrastructure is
built for 100 years. You can’t have bugs. If you do, the building will fall
down. You can’t iterate it. It’s a practice </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:21.4pt;
margin-left:399.25pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://blog.codinghorror.
com/the-magpie-developer/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:116.5pt;margin-bottom:
7.5pt;margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span
style='font-size:18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Digital infrastructure
does not have a central organization to determine what gets built or used.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:88.45pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Finally, perhaps the most striking difference between
digital and physical infrastructure, and one of the biggest challenges to its
sustainability, is that there is no organizing body to determine what gets
built or used in digital infrastructure.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:107.05pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Transportation, sewage and water projects are
generally owned and managed by the government, whether federal, state or local.
Communication and electric projects tend to be managed by private companies. In
both situations, infrastructure projects are funded by a mix of private and public
actors, either from the federal budget, private company financing, or metered
user fees.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>In a stable, developed country, we rarely
think about whether or </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:91.75pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>how a road gets built or a
building has electricity. Even for projects that are privately owned or funded,
the federal government has a </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:84.5pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>vested interest in guaranteeing that physical
infrastructure gets built and maintained.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.6pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Digital infrastructure projects, on the other hand,
are conceived of and built from the bottom up. It is akin to a group of
citizens getting together and deciding they want to build a bridge or create
their own sewage system. There is no authoritative body whose formal permission
is required to create new digital infrastructure.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.1pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The Internet itself does have two major governing
bodies that help set standards: the Internet Engineering Task Force and World
Wide Web Consortium.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:82.6pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>The Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) helps develop and set voluntary standards for how information gets
passed around the Internet. For example, they are the reason why URLs start
with </p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=609 style='width:456.7pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:39.8pt'>
<td width=527 valign=top style='width:395.6pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:39.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:35.95pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.05pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.05pt;line-height:
107%'>organization in 1993.<sup>45</sup> The IETF itself is run by
volunteers, and there are no membership requirements: anyone from the public
may </p>
</td>
<td width=82 valign=top style='width:61.15pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:39.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>45 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:89.15pt;margin-bottom:
2.35pt;margin-left:3.75pt;text-indent:-3.0pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12>“HTTP”. They
are also the reason why we have IP addresses—unique identifiers assigned to
your computer when it is connected to a network. Originally a working group
within the United States government in 1986, the IETF became an independent,
international </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:5.45pt;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>join simply by declaring him- or herself a member.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) helps
set standards for the </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>World Wide Web. It was founded by Tim
Berners-Lee in 1994. The </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>W3C tends to focus more exclusively on web pages and
documents (they are, for example, the reason why web pages use HTML for basic
formatting). They maintain the standards around the markup language HTML and
stylesheet formatting language CSS, two basic components of any web page. The
W3C’s membership is slightly more formalized, requiring an application and fee,
and its members range from businesses to universities to individuals.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:97.9pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The IETF and W3C help manage standards around the
most fundamental pieces of the Internet, but the next layer up—choices about
which languages are used to build software, which frameworks to build them
with, or which libraries to include—are entirely self-managed in the public
domain. (Certainly, many proprietary software projects, particularly those with
heavy regulation, such as aeronautics or health care, may have requirements on
which tools are used. They may even build proprietary tools for their own use.)</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.0pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>With physical infrastructure, if the government
builds a new bridge between San Francisco and Oakland, that bridge will
certainly be used. Similarly, when the W3C wants to set a new standard, such as
a new version of HTML, it is formally published and announced. For example, in
2014, the W3C announced HTML5, the first major revision of HTML since 1997,
which had been in development for seven years.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.85pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>By contrast, when a computer scientist wants to
create a new programming language, he or she is free to publish it and it may
or may not be adopted. The bar for adoption is even lower for frameworks or
libraries: because they are easier to build, and easier for a user to learn and
implement, these tools are iterated more frequently.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:88.75pt;margin-bottom:
24.15pt;margin-left:.95pt'>More importantly, nobody is forcing or even strongly
encouraging anyone to use these projects. Some projects remain more academic
than practical; others are ignored completely. It is difficult to predict what
gets used until others are actually using it.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.0pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Developers like to point to <i>usefulness</i> as an
indicator of whether a new project gets adopted or not. New projects should
make an improvement to an existing project, or solve a chronic problem, in
order to be deemed useful and worthy of adoption. When developers are asked why
their project got so popular, many of them will shrug and simply say, “It was
the best thing out there.”</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:107.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Not unlike technology startups, new digital infrastructure
projects rely upon <i>network effects</i> for adoption. Getting a core group of
developers excited, or a software company using the project, helps spread the
word. A catchy name, branding, or website can add to the project’s novelty
factor. A developer’s reputation within their respective community also helps
determine whether a new project gets noticed.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:106.25pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>However, in the end, a new digital infrastructure
project can come from just about anywhere, which means each project is managed
and sustained in very different ways.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection13>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:81.1pt;
margin-left:.3pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
5.5pt;line-height:110%'>HOw AR E DIGITAL INFRA STRUC T UR E pROjEC TS mANAGED
AND SUppORTED?</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:12.4pt;
margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>How are digital infrastructure projects managed and supported?</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>We’ve established that digital infrastructure is as critical
to modern society as physical infrastructure. Although digital infrastructure
is not subject to the high costs and political obstacles of physical
infrastructure, its decentralized nature also makes it harder to pin down.
Without a central governing body, how do open source projects find the support
they need?</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:25.45pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>In short, the answer is different for every project.
However, there are several places where projects might originate: within a
company, as a new business, or from an individual or community of developers.</p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Within a company</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:11.6pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Sometimes, the project starts within a
company. Here are a few examples that demonstrate the different ways in which
an open source project might be supported by a company’s resources:</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=516
style='width:387.0pt;margin-left:1.0pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:103.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 24.65pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:103.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:1.0pt;
line-height:107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Go,
the new programming language previously mentioned,</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> was developed at Google in 2007 by
engineers Robert Griesemer, Rob Pike, and Ken Thompson, who created Go as an
experiment. Go is open source and accepts contributions from the broader community.
However, its core maintainers are employed full-time by Google to work on the
language.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>46</span></sup></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 24.65pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:103.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 24.65pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:103.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.95pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:1.4pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:
inter-ideograph;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>React is a new JavaScript library
that is growing in popularity.</span></i></b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%'> React was created by Jordan Walke, a software engineer at
Facebook, for internal use on Facebook’s news feed. An employee at Instagram
(which is owned by Facebook) wanted to use React, too, and eventually React
was open sourced, two years after its initial development.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>47</span></sup><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> Facebook </span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection14>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>46 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:397.0pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
11.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 51417"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:39.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Go_(programming_language)</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>47 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:397.0pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
11.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 51418"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://www.quora.com/
How-was-the-idea-to-develop-React-conceived-andhow-many-people-workedon-developing-it-and-implementing-it-at-Facebook/
answer/Bill-Fisher-17</span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=516 style='width:387.0pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:52.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.4pt;height:52.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:15.75pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.9pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.05pt;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>dedicated a team of
engineers to help maintain the project, but React also accepts contributions
from the public developer community.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:
11.0pt;line-height:107%'>48</span></sup></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.4pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:120.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.4pt;height:120.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:15.7pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.55pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Swift, the programming language
used for iOS, OS X, and other Apple projects,</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> is an example of a project that
was only recently open sourced. Swift was developed internally by Apple for
four years and released as a proprietary language in 2014. Developers could
use Swift to write software for Apple devices, but not contribute to the
language’s core development. In 2015, Swift was open sourced under the Apache
License 2.0.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>49</span></sup></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>48 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:87.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>React_(JavaScript_library)</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>49 </span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=540 style='width:404.85pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:393.55pt'>
<td width=529 valign=top style='width:397.0pt;padding:0cm 0cm .2pt 0cm;
height:393.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:35.25pt;margin-bottom:
20.0pt;margin-left:1.15pt;text-indent:-1.15pt;line-height:136%'>The
incentives for a company to maintain an open source project are numerous.
Opening up a project to the public can mean less work for the company, which
is essentially crowdsourcing improvements. It builds goodwill and awareness
among developers, who might then be incentivized to use other company
resources to build things. Having an active community of developers creates a
recruiting pipeline for talent. And sometimes, open sourcing a project helps
a company strengthen their user base and brand, or even drown out
competition. The more market share a company can capture, even through tools
it gives away, the more influential it becomes. This is not dissimilar to the
“loss leader” concept of business.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:31.75pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:1.2pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.05pt;line-height:
107%'>Even if a project is created internally, if it is open sourced, that
project is free to use or modify according to the terms of an open source
license, and is not considered company intellectual property in the
traditional sense. Many company projects use standard open source licenses
that are considered acceptable by the broader developer community, such as
Apache License 2.0 or BSD. However, in some cases, companies add their own
clauses. React, for example, has an additional clause that could potentially
cause patent claim </p>
</td>
<td width=10 valign=top style='width:7.85pt;padding:0cm 0cm .2pt 0cm;
height:393.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:18.8pt'>
<td width=529 valign=bottom style='width:397.0pt;padding:0cm 0cm .2pt 0cm;
height:18.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:1.45pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>conflicts
with React users.<sup>50</sup> As a result, some companies and </p>
</td>
<td width=10 valign=top style='width:7.85pt;padding:0cm 0cm .2pt 0cm;
height:18.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;
text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>50 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
435.35pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'> https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Swift_(programming_ language)</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:0cm;
margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:366.3pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center;
text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:
109%;color:black'> https://github.com/facebook/react/blob/master/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:397.5pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>PATENTS</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:60.9pt;margin-bottom:
25.45pt;margin-left:.95pt'>individuals are reluctant to use React, and the
decision is frequently portrayed as in conflict with open source principles.</p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>As a new business</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:102.0pt;margin-bottom:
159.95pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Some infrastructure projects take a traditional
startup path, including venture funding. A couple of examples are as follows:</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=516 style='width:387.0pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:188.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.4pt;height:188.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:13.45pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.75pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Docker</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>, perhaps the best-known
contemporary example, helps software applications run inside containers.
(Containers provide a clean, tidy environment for software applications that
make them easier to run anywhere). Docker started as an internal project
within dotCloud, a platform-as-a-service company, but became so popular that
the founders decided to make Docker the main focus of the company. The Docker
project was open sourced in 2013. Docker has raised $180M with an estimated
valuation of over $1B.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%'>51</span></sup><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:
107%'> Their business model is based on support, private plans, and services.
Docker’s 2014 revenue was less than $10 million.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>52</span></sup></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.4pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:73.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.4pt;height:73.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:18.85pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.8pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.05pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Npm</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> is a package manager to help
Node.js developers share and manage their projects, released in 2010. Npm
raised nearly $11M in funding since 2014 from True Ventures and Bessemer
Ventures, among others. Their business model focuses on paid features that support
privacy and security.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.4pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:137.25pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.4pt;height:137.25pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.65pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.1pt;line-height:126%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:126%'>Meteor</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:126%'> is a JavaScript framework that was
first released in 2012. It was incubated by Y Combinator, a prestigious
startup accelerator that also incubated companies like AirBnB and Dropbox.
Meteor has received over </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.6pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.55pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.55pt;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>$30M in funding to
date from firms including Andreessen Horowitz and Matrix Partners.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>53</span></sup><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> Meteor’s business model focuses on
an enterprise platform called Galaxy, released in October 2015, for operating
and managing Meteor applications.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%'>54</span></sup></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><img width=10 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left
hspace=12><img width=9 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image004.gif"
align=left hspace=12><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>51 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://venturebeat.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:136%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:136%;color:black'>com/2015/06/13/dockernow-valued-at-1b-paid-someone-799-for-its-logo-on99designs/
</span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:136%'>52 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
119.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.bloomberg.com/
news/articles/2015-04-14/
docker-said-to-join-1-billionvaluation-club-with-newfunding</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>53 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:0cm;
margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:1.6pt;text-align:center;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://www.crunchbase.
com/organization/meteor</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>54</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://info.meteor.com/blog/
announcing-meteor-galaxy</span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=623 style='width:467.5pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:137.6pt'>
<td width=528 valign=bottom style='width:395.8pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:137.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:27.0pt;
margin-left:.25pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>over the five previous
years.<sup>55</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:16.05pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.05pt;line-height:107%'>Using
venture capital to support open source projects has been met with skepticism
from developers (and even some venture capitalists themselves), due to lack
of clear business models and questionable revenue to justify valuations.
Steve Klabnik, a maintainer for the language Rust, explains venture capital’s
sudden interest in funding </p>
</td>
<td width=96 valign=top style='width:71.75pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:137.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>55 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://venturebeat.
com/2015/12/06/its-actuallyopen-source-software-thatseating-the-world/</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.5pt;margin-bottom:
2.4pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12>The venture
funding approach is relatively new, and growing rapidly. Lightspeed Venture
Partners found that from 2010-2015, venture firms invested over $4B in open
source companies, a tenfold increase </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:7.7pt;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>open source:</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=491 style='width:367.9pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:156.7pt'>
<td width=480 valign=top style='width:360.15pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:156.7pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:32.4pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.15pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.15pt;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>In many ways, the open source stuff is a loss leader, so that
you get hooked...and then use it for everything, even your closed source
code. This is a great business strategy, but it also places GitHub at the
center of this new universe. So for similar reasons, a16z needs GitHub to be
awesome to bootstrap every open source ecosystem that will exist into the
future….And a16z has the money to ‘throw away’ on something they won’t get a
direct return out of, because they’re smart enough to invest </span></i></p>
</td>
<td width=10 valign=top style='width:7.75pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:156.7pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:18.7pt'>
<td width=480 valign=top style='width:360.15pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:18.7pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.7pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>some of their fund in ecosystem development.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>56</span></sup></p>
</td>
<td width=10 valign=top style='width:7.75pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:18.7pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;
text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>56 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.8pt;margin-bottom:
188.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>I’m a VC. I need a large number of companies to exist to make my
money….I need costs to be low and profits to be high. I need a healthy open
source ecosystem to make this happen. So what do I do?...VCs are realizing this
story, and are starting to invest in infrastructure. [...]</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0pt;
margin-bottom:16.0pt;margin-left:366.3pt;text-align:center;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://words.steveklabnik.
com/is-npm-worth-26mm</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:107.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>GitHub, created in 2008, is a platform for code,
available publicly or privately in an easy-to-read environment. It hosts many
popular open source projects and, most importantly, has become the cultural
epicenter for open source’s explosive growth (to be discussed later in this
report).</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=613 style='width:459.9pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:77.55pt'>
<td width=529 valign=bottom style='width:397.05pt;padding:0cm 0cm .2pt 0cm;
height:77.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:17.9pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.8pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.8pt;line-height:
107%'>2012, GitHub has taken $350M in total venture capital funding.<sup>57 </sup>Andreessen
Horowitz (or “a16z”), the $4B venture capital firm who provided most of the
capital in their first $100M round, stated it was the largest investment they
had ever made at the time.<sup>58</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=84 valign=top style='width:62.85pt;padding:0cm 0cm .2pt 0cm;
height:77.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>57 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:28.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:109%;
color:black'>https://www.crunchbase. com/organization/github</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>58 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:106.0pt;margin-bottom:
67.95pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12>GitHub
did not take any venture capital until 2012, four years after its founding.
Before then, GitHub was a profitable company. Since </p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.45pt;
margin-bottom:.15pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.wsj.com/articles/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.45pt;
margin-bottom:.15pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>SB1000142405270230329220</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:19.3pt;
margin-bottom:7.95pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>4577517111643094308</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.6pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Steve Klabnik’s thesis, in other
words, is that venture capital firms who invest in open source infrastructure
promote these platforms as a “loss leader,” even when there is no direct
business model or profitability to be had, because it grows the entire
ecosystem. The more resources GitHub has, the more open source thrives. The
more open source thrives, the more startups thrive. If nothing else, </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:95.5pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>venture capital’s interest in open source, especially
given the lack of clear financial return, validates the critical role open
source plays in the broader startup ecosystem.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.35pt;margin-bottom:
25.4pt;margin-left:.95pt'>(As an aside, it is important to mention that GitHub,
the platform itself, is not an open source project, and therefore is not an
example of venture capital directly funding open source. GitHub is a closed
source platform that hosts open source projects. This is a controversial topic
for some open source contributors.)</p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>By individuals or a group of individuals</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:83.85pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Finally, many digital infrastructure projects are
developed and maintained entirely by independent developers, or a community of
developers. A few examples are as follows: </p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=516 style='width:387.0pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:205.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 32.3pt;height:205.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.9pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:4.1pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:
126%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:126%'>Python, a
programming language, was developed and published by computer scientist Guido
van Rossum in 1991.</span></i></b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:126%'> Van Rossum claimed he </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:17.05pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:3.6pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-3.6pt;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>“was looking for a
‘hobby’ programming project that would keep me occupied during the week
around Christmas.” </span></i><sup><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:
107%'>59</span></sup><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> The
project took off, and Python is now considered to be one of the most popular
programming languages today. </span></i><sup><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%'>60</span></sup><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:
107%'> Van Rossum remains the principal author of Python (also known as a
benevolent dictator for life, or BDFL, among developers) and is currently
employed by Dropbox, whose software relies heavily on Python. </span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>61 </span></sup><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Python is partially managed by the
Python Software Foundation, created in 2001, which has a number of corporate
sponsors, including Intel, HP, and Google.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 32.3pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:107.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 32.3pt;height:107.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:5.25pt;margin-bottom:
1.5pt;margin-left:3.95pt;text-indent:-.15pt;line-height:129%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:129%'>RubyGems is a package manager that
helps distribute programs and libraries associated with the Ruby programming
language.</span></i></b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:129%'>
It is a critical piece of infrastructure for any Ruby developer. Examples of
websites that use Ruby are Hulu, AirBnB and Bloomberg. </span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:129%'>62</span></sup><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:129%'> RubyGems was created in </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.95pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:3.9pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-1.45pt;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>2003 and is managed
by a community of developers. Some development work is supported by Ruby
Together, a foundation that accepts donations from companies and individuals.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 32.3pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:120.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 32.3pt;height:120.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:19.85pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:3.75pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.75pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Twisted, a Python
library, was authored by a developer named Glyph Lefkowitz in 2002.</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> Since then, it has achieved
widespread usage among individuals and organizations, including Lucasfilm and
NASA.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>63</span></sup><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> Twisted continues to be run by a
group of volunteers. It is supported by corporate and individual donations;
Lefkowitz remains the lead architect and offers consulting services for
income.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>64</span></sup></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><img width=9 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image004.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=10 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif" align=left
hspace=12><img width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"
align=left hspace=12><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>59</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
7.9pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://www.python.org/doc/
essays/foreword/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>60 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
7.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://blog.codeeval.
com/codeevalblog/2015#. VjvKZhNViko=</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>61 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:87.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Guido_van_Rossum</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>62 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://skillcrush.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:79.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>com/2015/02/02/37-railssites/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>63 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
15.9pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://twistedmatrix.com/
trac/wiki/SuccessStories</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>64 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
43.9pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://twistedmatrix.com/
glyph/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:108.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>As these examples demonstrate, open source projects
can come from just about anywhere. This is, generally, considered to be a good
thing. It means that <i>useful</i> projects are more likely to succeed,
avoiding both the vacuous hype associated with startups, and the bureaucracy
associated with government. Digital infrastructure’s decentralized nature also
reinforces the open and democratic principles of the Internet, where anybody
could theoretically create the next big project, whether a company or
individual.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=602 style='width:451.45pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:34.3pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:395.65pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:34.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:20.85pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>relied
upon just one or two developers to survive.<sup>65</sup> Although there may
be a long tail of casual or infrequent contributors, for many </p>
</td>
<td width=74 valign=top style='width:55.8pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:34.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>65</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://peerj.com/preprints/1233.pdf</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.15pt;margin-bottom:
5.65pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=9 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image004.gif" align=left hspace=12>On the other
hand, many useful projects will come from independent developers who suddenly
find themselves at the helm of a successful project, facing critical decisions
about its future. A 2015 study by the Federal University of Minas Gerais in
Brazil looked at 133 of the most actively used projects hosted on GitHub,
across programming languages, and found that 64%, or nearly two-thirds, </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:7.7pt;margin-right:105.5pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>projects, the major responsibilities of project
management fall on just a few people.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.0pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Coordinating international communities of opinionated
contributors and managing the expectations of Fortune 500 companies who use
your project are challenging tasks for anyone. It is truly impressive how much
has already been accomplished in this manner. These tasks are especially
difficult when developers lack clear role models or institutional support for
this work. In interviews for this report, many developers privately lamented
that they have no idea who to ask for help and would “rather just code.”</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:84.7pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Why do they keep doing it? The remainder of this
paper will focus on how and why open source contributors maintain projects of
massive scale and impact, and why it matters to all of us.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection15>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:12.4pt;
margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>Why do people keep contributing to these projects, when they’re
not getting paid for it?</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:25.45pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Many digital infrastructure projects are maintained by
individual contributors or a community of contributors. In most cases, these
contributors are not being paid directly to work on the project. Instead, they
contribute for reasons that are unique to open source communities, including
building reputation and a public service mindset. This section will explore
some of those motivations in greater detail.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:
8.5pt;margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span
style='font-size:18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>Contributing to open
source builds one’s reputation.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Building one’s reputation is perhaps the most practical
reason why someone would want to contribute to an open source project. For
developers, technical writers, or others, these projects help them prove
themselves in public, giving them a chance to be part of something big and
useful.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Google runs a program called Google Summer of Code, which
provides a summer stipend to student developers to contribute to popular open
source projects. The program works well because the developers are students,
new to the field of computer science, and eager to show off their skills.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Developers, in particular, leverage open source
contributions to build a portfolio of their work. In addition, by providing
input on popular projects with active communities, a developer has a chance to
build his or her reputation by making him or herself “known.” GitHub, the
website previously mentioned, is a popular platform for collaborating on code.
When a developer makes a contribution to a public software project, those
contributions appear in his or her profile. A developer’s GitHub profile can
serve as a portfolio for software companies, but only contributions to public
(i.e., open source) projects are visible to anyone.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>However, reputation-based motivations
also come with risks, especially among junior developers. A developer early in
his or her career may contribute to an open source project for the sole purpose
of getting hired, then stop contributing once this goal has been achieved. In
addition, developers who are solely interested in building their portfolio may
make lower quality contributions to the project that do not get accepted or
even slow down the development process. Finally, if the purpose of making a
public contribution is to build one’s reputation, a developer will be motivated
to only contribute to popular or attractive projects (an extension of the </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:25.4pt;
margin-left:3.95pt;text-indent:-3.2pt'>“magpie developer” phenomenon mentioned
earlier), which means that older projects struggle to find new contributors.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:3.1pt;margin-bottom:7.5pt;
margin-left:4.5pt;text-indent:-2.4pt;line-height:95%'><span style='font-size:
18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>The project became unexpectedly popular,
and the maintainer feels obligated to support it.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>A popular open source project can create dependencies for
other companies, individuals or organizations. In other words, the code is
being used in live software, written and deployed by other people, that could
serve any number of purposes, whether online shopping or health care. This
complex set of dependencies (many of which are not visible even to the project
author, since they do not have clear </p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection16>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>user data) can make a maintainer feel ethically obligated to
continue supporting it.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Arash Payan, the developer of
Appirater mentioned in the beginning of this paper, released his project in
2009. Of his decision to </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>continue maintaining the project, Payan says:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:69.6pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>It's not terribly exciting stuff, but there are so many people
out </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:3.2pt;
margin-bottom:.15pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:108%'><b><span style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:108%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:108%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>there that use (depend, even?) on the project for their apps,
that </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:22.65pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>I feel obligated to be a good steward of it. Personally, I've
moved on from iOS, so maintaining an iOS library isn't exactly my first choice
for a side project.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:
128%;color:black'>66</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Payan estimates the project only takes roughly 1-2 hours per
month to keep up-to-date, so he doesn’t mind the work.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.6pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Some projects become unexpectedly popular but take more time
to support. Andrey Petrov is an independent developer who wrote a Python library
called urllib3. He released it in 2008 as a significant improvement to the
existing standard library, and it became popular among Python developers.
Today, every Python user depends on it.<sup>67</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Andrey made the project open source in hopes that other
people would help support its continued development and upkeep. Andrey is a
freelance developer—although he enjoys maintaining urllib3, he can only justify
doing so in his free time, since he is not paid for his work. Cory Benfield,
who is employed by Hewlett Packard Enterprise to help maintain critical Python
libraries (which HPE uses and depends on), now works on urllib3 as part of his
job. Cory’s arrangement has reduced some of the burden.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>66 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 52127"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Email interview with Arash </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:147.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Payan</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>67 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 52125"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://medium.com/@ shazow/urllib3-stripe-andopen-source-grants-edb9c0e46e82</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection17>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:
5.25pt;margin-left:2.35pt;text-indent:-.25pt;line-height:95%'><span
style='font-size:18.0pt;line-height:95%;color:#F15E4E'>The project is a labor
of love.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:72.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Eric Holscher is a creator of Read the Docs, which
hosts software documentation. Documentation is the equivalent of an instruction
manual. Just as one might need an instruction manual to figure out how to put a
piece of furniture together, developers need documentation to figure out how to
implement a project. Without proper documentation, it would be difficult for a
developer to know how to get started.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=626 style='width:469.45pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:257.55pt'>
<td width=528 valign=bottom style='width:395.95pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:257.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:6.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>views per month.<sup>68</sup>
Although they make some money from large </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:53.6pt;margin-bottom:
20.0pt;margin-left:.25pt;text-indent:.1pt;line-height:136%'>business clients,
Read the Docs is still mostly funded by donations from its users. A company
called Rackspace sponsors their server costs.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:34.8pt;margin-bottom:
22.35pt;margin-left:.2pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:138%'>Eric and his
cofounder, Anthony Johnson, maintain the project, and do not see steady
income from it, despite working on the project full-time. A $48,000 one-time
grant from the Mozilla Foundation in December 2015 will help cover their work
for a short time.<sup>69</sup> They are currently experimenting with an
advertising model (that does not involve tracking their users) to reach
sustainability.<sup>70</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.2pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>Eric
notes that the difficulties lie not just in new development work, </p>
</td>
<td width=98 valign=top style='width:73.5pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:257.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>68 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:128.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://readthedocs.org/ sustainability/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>69 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:12.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://blog.mozilla.org/
blog/2015/12/10/mozillaopen-source-support-firstawards-made/ </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>70 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://blog.readthedocs.com/
ads-on-read-the-docs/</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:41.85pt;margin-bottom:
2.35pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left
hspace=12>Read the Docs provides documentation for 18,000 software projects,
including enterprise customers, and serves over 15 million page </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:7.7pt;margin-right:87.2pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>but non-coding functions like customer support, for
which one of the maintainers must be on call every weekend in case of an
emergency. When Eric explained why he continues to support the project, he
called it a “labor of love”:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:70.4pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.05pt;text-indent:-20.9pt;line-height:98%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:98%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:98%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>Clearly there’s another
motivation for me here. It’s a labor of Either humans are irrational or they
don’t just follow money. </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:48.35pt;margin-bottom:
4.95pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>love. I could close this project tomorrow and be done with it if
I wanted to, but I’ve been doing it for 5 years and I don’t want to </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:2.15pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:110%;color:black'> </span><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:110%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>see that happen.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:110%;color:black'>71 </span></sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%'>71</span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:110%;color:black'>Skype interview with </span><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'><img width=9 height=1
id="Group 51868" src="roads-and_filtered_files/image004.gif"></span><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:18.35pt;
margin-bottom:19.95pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Eric
Holscher</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:80.75pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Eric is motivated to work on Read the Docs because he
sees the tangible value it creates for others. For many project maintainers,
impact is a primary motivator, because they see how their direct efforts
positively affect other people’s lives. In this sense, open source work shares
many similarities to the nonprofit sector. Much like the nonprofit sector,
however, this “labor of love” mentality can make it harder for open source
communities to discuss the elephant in the room: how to sustain projects that require
more resources and attention than current contributors can offer.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection18>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:561.95pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:-106.9pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:
107%'><img width=818 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image013.gif"><br
clear=ALL>
<br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.55pt;margin-bottom:
12.4pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>Open source’s complicated relationship with money</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:88.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Money has been a taboo topic for open source projects
since the early days of the free software movement, which arose in direct
response to the practice of commercial, proprietary software.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.05pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>In the context of the free software movement, the
aversion to money is certainly understandable. Money is what commercialized
software in the 1980s, and it took decades to reverse this mentality and
promote the benefits of building software that is free to use, distribute, and
modify. Although we take free software for granted today, in the 1980s it was
truly a counterculture and revolutionary mindset.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.35pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Yet even within open source communities, there is a
pervasive belief that money has a corrupting influence on open source. It is
indeed remarkable how much has been created entirely through labors of love.
These days, software development is considered a lucrative field, with coding
schools luring prospective students with the promise of making a six-figure
entry-level salary. By contrast, there is something pure and admirable about
creating a software project simply for the joy of it.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:85.85pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>On a more practical level, open source projects
traditionally arise from a real and identifiable need. Someone decides that a
project could be done better, so they fork the project, make improvements, then
release it for consumption. Pragmatism is core to open source’s culture, as
evidenced by its strategic break from the free software movement in the late
1990s. Some open source contributors fear, perhaps justifiably, that money will
introduce bloat into the system, with developers creating new projects simply
to get funding, rather than because the solution is needed.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:68.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>David
Heinemeier Hansson (also known as DHH), who created the popular software
framework Ruby on Rails, warned in 2013 against mixing open source with money:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:85.45pt;margin-bottom:
20.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Open source has been such an incredible force for quality and
community exactly because it's not been defined in market terms. In market
terms, most open source projects should never have had a chance.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:88.3pt;margin-bottom:
20.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Take Ruby on Rails. [...] That's a monumental achievement of
humanity! Thousands, collaborating for a decade, to produce an astoundingly
accomplished framework and ecosystem available to anyone at the cost of zero.
Take a second to ponder the magnitude of that success. Not just for Rails, of
course, but for many other, and larger, open source projects out there with an
even longer lineage and success.</span></i></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=625 style='width:468.65pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:55.6pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:396.1pt;padding:.1pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:55.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:25.8pt;
margin-left:36.8pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>corrupt the ecosystem.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>72</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'>Structurally, open source’s greatest advantage —its
penchant for </p>
</td>
<td width=97 valign=top style='width:72.6pt;padding:.1pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:55.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>72 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://david.heinemeierhansson.com/2013/the-perils-ofmixing-open-source-andmoney.html</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:80.9pt;margin-bottom:
5.1pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>It's against this fantastic success of social norms that we
should be extraordinary [sic] careful before we let market norms </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:7.7pt;margin-right:89.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>democracy— is also its weakness. Many open source
projects are nothing more than a public code repository to which a group of
people contribute regularly: the equivalent of an unofficial social club on a
college campus. There is no legal structure and there are no clear owners or
leaders. “Maintainers,” or the primary contributors, often emerge <i>de facto</i>,
based on who authored the project or put in significant time or effort. Even
then, however, some projects are reluctant to introduce hierarchy by clearly favoring
one contributor over another.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:95.6pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>In April of 2008, Jeff Atwood, an aforementioned
prominent .NET developer, announced he was donating $5,000 towards an open
source project, ScrewTurn Wiki. ScrewTurn Wiki is a wiki project developed by
Dario Solara, another .NET developer, and maintained by volunteers. Atwood told
Dario that the grant would be “no strings attached;” Solara could use the money
as he saw fit towards the project.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=615 style='width:461.4pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:39.8pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:395.8pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:39.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:32.15pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.15pt;line-height:107%'>response.<sup>73
</sup>The decentralized nature of open source has made it what it is: crowdsourced
software that anyone can build, share and </p>
</td>
<td width=88 valign=top style='width:65.65pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:39.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>73 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://blog.codinghorror.
com/is-money-useless-toopen-source-projects/ </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:78.3pt;margin-bottom:
2.35pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12>Several months
later, Atwood followed up with Solara to ask how he decided to spend the
donation. Solara replied that the grant money was <i>“still untouched. It’s not
easy to use it….What would you suggest?”</i> Atwood wrote that he was
“crushingly disappointed” by the </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:5.45pt;margin-right:87.2pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>contribute to. But when it comes to discussing
organizational needs or sustainability, it can be difficult to make
authoritative decisions.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>These transitions to long-term sustainability can be
drawn out and painful. One of the more prominent examples is the Linux kernel,
an open source project used in many operating systems worldwide, including
Android and Chrome OS. It was created in 1991 by computer science student Linus
Torvalds.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.55pt;margin-bottom:
4.15pt;margin-left:.95pt'>As the Linux kernel grew in popularity, Linus was
reluctant to discuss how to scale development of the project, preferring to
manage everything himself. Project maintainers grew restless and even angry at
Torvalds, sparking “really big fights,” according to </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:89.7pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Torvalds. The disputes peaked in 2002 with
discussions of a potential schism.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=626 style='width:469.4pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:214.65pt'>
<td width=527 valign=top style='width:395.6pt;padding:1.15pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:214.65pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:11.45pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:
inter-ideograph;text-indent:14.15pt;line-height:107%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>ping patches left and
right, and things really weren't working. </span></i>rather than to any
technical issues:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:23.7pt;
margin-left:35.05pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>We had really big fights back in 2002 or so where I was drop-</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:25.5pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:35.5pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>It was very painful for everybody, and very much for me, too.
Nobody really likes criticism, and there was a lot of flaming going
around—and because it wasn't a strictly technical problem, you couldn't point
to a patch and say, ‘hey, look, that patch improves timings by 15%’ or
anything like that: there was no technical solution. The solution ended up
being better tools, and a work flow [sic] that allowed much more distributed </span></i></p>
</td>
<td width=98 valign=top style='width:73.8pt;padding:1.15pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:214.65pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:49.1pt'>
<td width=527 valign=top style='width:395.6pt;padding:1.15pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:49.1pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:36.1pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>management.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'>74</span></sup></p>
</td>
<td width=98 valign=top style='width:73.8pt;padding:1.15pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:49.1pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>74 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://www.datamation.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>com/open-source/linus-torvalds-and-others-on-community-burnout-1.html
</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:260.7pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=10 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif" align=left hspace=12>Torvalds
attributed the internal conflict to a lack of organization, </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.05pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The Linux Foundation was created in 2007 to help
protect and maintain Linux and its associated projects. Torvalds does not run
the Linux Foundation himself, preferring instead to receive a steady salary as
a “Linux Fellow” and work on his projects as an engineer.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.15pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>While open source software is admirably rooted in a
culture of volunteerism and collaboration relatively untouched by extrinsic
motives, the reality is that our economy and society, from multimillion dollar
companies to government websites, depends on open source.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:72.9pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Overall, this is probably a positive development for
society. It means that software is no longer strictly relegated to private,
proprietary development, as it had been for decades. The fact that the United
States government, or a social network website with billions of users,
incorporates community-built software, paints an optimistic future for
democracy.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:93.5pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>In addition, many projects function well on a
community basis if they are on the extremes of size: that is, either small
projects that do not require significant maintenance (as in the example of
Arash Payan and Appirater), or very large projects that have found significant
corporate support (as in the example of Linux).</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.6pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>However, many projects are trapped somewhere in the
middle: large enough to require significant maintenance, but not quite so large
that corporations are clamoring to offer support. These are the stories that go
unnoticed and untold. From both sides, these maintainers are told they are the
problem: Small project maintainers think mid-sized maintainers should just
learn to cope, and large project maintainers think if the project were “good
enough,” institutional support would have already come to them.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:93.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>There are also political concerns around financial
support that make it harder to find a reliable source of funding. A single
company may not want to sponsor development work that also benefits their
competitor, who paid nothing. A private benefactor may want special privileges
that threaten the neutrality of a project. (For example, for security-related
projects, privileged disclosure of vulnerabilities— paying for special
knowledge about security vulnerabilities instead of exposing those
vulnerabilities to the public—is a controversial request.) And governments may
have political reasons to sponsor the development of a particular project, or
ask for special favors </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:77.45pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>such as “backdoors” (a secret way of bypassing
security authentication), even if that project is used internationally.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:93.25pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>The recent legal disputes between
the FBI and Apple help underscore the tension between technology and
government, even beyond open source projects. The FBI has repeatedly, through
court orders, requested Apple’s assistance in unlocking iPhones to help resolve
criminal investigations. Apple has repeatedly denied these requests. In
February 2016, the FBI requested Apple’s assistance in unlocking the iPhone
belonging to one of the shooters in a recent terrorist attack in San
Bernardino, California. Apple again denied the request, posting a public
customer letter on its website, which </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>stated that:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:69.5pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>While we believe the FBI’s intentions are good, it would be </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:16.5pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>wrong for the government to
force us to build a backdoor into </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:42.5pt;margin-bottom:
4.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>our products. And ultimately, we fear that this demand would
undermine the very freedoms and liberty our government is </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:6.55pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:110%;color:black'> </span><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:110%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>meant to protect.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:110%;color:black'>75 </span></sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%'>75</span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.apple.com/</span><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1
id="Group 53638" src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:17.55pt;
margin-bottom:15.95pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>customer-letter/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:85.5pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>In March 2016, the FBI found a third party to help it
unlock the iPhone and dropped the legal case.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:91.55pt;margin-bottom:
24.15pt;margin-left:.95pt'>One of open source’s greatest strengths is that the
code is considered a public good, and many projects take governance seriously.
It is personally important to many project maintainers that no individual party
control something that the public uses and benefits from. However, this
commitment to neutrality can come at a price, when many resources available to
software developers today (such as venture capital or corporate donations) are
based on expectations of influence or financial return.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:80.75pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Open source software is being created and used at a
rate never seen before. Many open source projects are experiencing a difficult
transition from selfless creative pursuit to critical public infrastructure.
These increasing dependencies mean we have a shared responsibility to ensure
that these projects find the support they need.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection19>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.55pt;margin-bottom:
12.4pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>Why digital infrastructure support problems are accelerating</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:100.65pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Open source is quickly becoming a
standard for digital infrastructure projects, and in software development
overall, due to the benefits cited earlier in this paper. Black Duck, a company
that helps clients manage open source software, runs an annual survey that asks
companies about their open source use. (This survey is one of the few open
source data projects in existence.) According to their 2015 survey, 78% of the
1,300 companies surveyed said their software created for customers was built on
open source, nearly double </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'>that of 2010.<sup>76 </sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>76</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 52883"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:107%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:7.95pt;
margin-left:398.0pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://www.blackducksoftware.com/future-of-opensource</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:84.3pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Open source has seen massive
growth in popularity in the last five years, not just because of the obvious
benefits to developer and </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:94.55pt;margin-bottom:
25.45pt;margin-left:.95pt'>consumer, but also due to new tools that make it
easier to collaborate on software. In order to understand why digital
infrastructure faces growing support problems, we must understand how open
source software development is proliferating.</p>
<h2 style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:110.15pt;margin-bottom:8.5pt;margin-left:
2.35pt'>GitHub as a standardized place to collaborate on code</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.2pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The role of GitHub in bringing open source to a
mainstream audience cannot be overemphasized. Although open source has existed
for over thirty years, until 2008, contributing to an open source project was
not so easy. A developer would have to figure out who the maintainer was, find
a way to contact them, and propose changes using whichever format that project
maintainer preferred (for example, a mailing list or message board). GitHub
standardized </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>these methods of communication: maintainers are
transparently listed on a project’s page, and discussion of proposed changes
takes place on the GitHub platform.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:91.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>GitHub created vocabulary that is now standard among
open source contributors, such as the “pull request” (where a developer submits
changes to a project for review) and repurposing the term “fork” (historically,
creating a copy of a project and modifying it into a new project). Prior to
GitHub, forking a project meant there were irreconcilable differences over the
direction a project should take. Forking was considered a serious move: if a
group of developers forked a project, it meant the project was splitting into
ideological factions. Forking was also used to develop a new project that might
have a markedly different purpose from the original project.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:102.2pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>This type of “project fork” still exists today, but
GitHub decided to use the term “fork” to encourage more activity on their
platform. A GitHub fork, unlike a project fork, means temporarily copying a
project, making changes, and usually merging it back into the project. Forking
as an everyday practice on GitHub’s platform has added a positive, lightweight
connotation to the term: a sign of taking one person’s idea and making it
better.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>GitHub also helped standardize the use of a version
control system called Git. Version control systems keep track of everybody’s
work on a particular piece of code. For example, if Developer 1 and Developer 2
are fixing different parts of the same code at the same time, logging each change
in a version control system ensures their changes don’t conflict with one
another.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>There are several options for version
control systems, including </p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection20>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:12.95pt;margin-bottom:
23.45pt;margin-left:9.9pt'>Apache Subversion and Concurrent Versions System
(CVS). Git used to be a fairly unknown version control system. In 2010,
Subversion was used in 60% of software projects, whereas Git was used in just
11%.<sup>77</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:34.45pt;
margin-left:10.35pt'>Linus Torvalds, the developer behind Linux, designed Git
in 2005 as a better and faster way to manage multiple contributions from many
people. Git was markedly different from earlier version control systems and
therefore not so easy to pick up, but its decentralized workflow solved a real
problem for developers.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:-8.35pt;margin-bottom:
22.85pt;margin-left:-1.0pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><img width=509
height=230 id="Picture 2895" src="roads-and_filtered_files/image014.jpg"></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:22.45pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:8.0pt;
line-height:107%'>79</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:10.05pt'>GitHub provided an intuitive user interface for open
source projects that used Git, thus making it easier for developers to learn.
The more developers used GitHub, the more they wanted to keep using Git. Today,
in 2016, Git is used in 38% of software projects, while Subversion’s share has
dropped to 47%.<sup>78</sup> Although Subversion is still the most popular
version control system today, its use is declining.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>77 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=10 height=1 id="Group 54145"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:339.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://redmonk.com/sogrady/2013/12/19/dvcs-andgit-2013/#ixzz2qyfVpSR9</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>79 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 54150"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Job postings requiring knowledge of Git vs.
</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:47.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Subversion, via Indeed.com. Data accessed
June 7, 2016. http://www.indeed.com/ jobtrends</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>78 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 54148"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>As of January 6, 2016. https://
www.openhub.net/repositories/compare</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection21>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:100.0pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The widespread adoption of Git makes it much easier
for a developer to join any open source project on GitHub, because the method
of making changes, and communicating those changes, is the same across
projects. Learning how to contribute to one project gives someone the ability
to contribute to hundreds of others. This was not the case before GitHub, where
different version control systems were used for different projects.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=626 style='width:469.15pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:177.55pt'>
<td width=528 valign=bottom style='width:395.75pt;padding:0cm 0cm .2pt 0cm;
height:177.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:35.6pt;margin-bottom:
21.8pt;margin-left:0cm;text-indent:.1pt;line-height:142%'>million
repositories.<sup>80</sup> Today, GitHub has 14 million users and over 35
million repositories.<sup>81</sup> (Note that this includes forked
repositories; the unique repository count is probably closer to 17 million.)
GitHub’s Brian Doll noted that the first million repositories took nearly 4
years to create; getting from nine to ten million took just 48 days.<sup>82</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:32.2pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.15pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.15pt;line-height:
107%'>By contrast, SourceForge, the most popular platform for hosting open
source code before GitHub, had 150,000 projects in 2008. An estimated 18,000
of those projects were active.<sup>83</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=98 valign=top style='width:73.45pt;padding:0cm 0cm .2pt 0cm;
height:177.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>80 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://github.com/blog/841those-are-some-big-numbers</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>81 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:12.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ GitHub</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>82 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:40.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://github.com/
blog/1724-10-million-repositories</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>83 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.2pt;margin-bottom:
2.4pt;margin-left:4.0pt;line-height:159%'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=10
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left
hspace=12><img width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"
align=left hspace=12>Finally, GitHub provided a place for developers to talk to
each other in a public setting for social reasons, not just code collaboration.
GitHub has become a de facto community of sorts for developers, who use it to
communicate with each other and show off their work. Developers now have an
opportunity to demonstrate their leadership and portfolio of work in a way they
could not before. GitHub’s usage reflects its meteoric rise. In 2011, there
were only 2 </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:2.45pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:400.1pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://dirkriehle.com/publications/2008-2/the-totalgrowth-of-open-source/</span></p>
<h2 style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:8.5pt;margin-left:
2.35pt'>Stack Overflow as a standardized place to get help with code</h2>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=625 style='width:469.05pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:34.3pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:395.65pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:34.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'>registered to view questions or their answers).<sup>84</sup>
Stack Overflow has become a <i>de facto</i> support platform for developers
to ask questions </p>
</td>
<td width=98 valign=top style='width:73.45pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:34.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>84 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Stack_Overflow</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:95.25pt;margin-bottom:
5.65pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12>Another
important tool is Stack Overflow, a popular Q&amp;A website for programmers,
also created in 2008 by Jeff Atwood, the aforementioned programmer and blogger,
and Joel Spolsky. As of April 2014, Stack Overflow had over 4 million
registered users and over 11 million questions answered (note that one does not
need to be </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:7.7pt;margin-right:100.3pt;margin-bottom:
25.4pt;margin-left:4.05pt'>about coding, find answers to specific code
problems, or just get advice on the best way to build a certain piece of
software. It can be thought of as crowdsourced “customer support” for
developers around the world. While Stack Overflow is not a place to write live
code, it is a critical collaboration tool for the individual developer, making
it easier to solve problems and code more efficiently. This means any one
individual developer is capable of achieving more in a shorter period of time,
increasing overall output. Stack Overflow has also helped people learn new
coding concepts (or even get started with coding itself), making coding easier
and more accessible to all.</p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Macro trends in a rapidly changing landscape</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:102.15pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The outsized popularity of open source has led to
significant changes in how today’s developer talks, thinks about, and
collaborates on software.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:4.0pt'>Firstly, licensing expectations and requirements have
changed to reflect a world that embraces open source as the standard, not the
exception: a triumph over the proprietary world of the 1980s. Both GitHub and
Stack Overflow’s policies reflect this.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=626 style='width:469.15pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:454.3pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:396.25pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:454.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:29.1pt;margin-bottom:
19.65pt;margin-left:.45pt;text-indent:.25pt;line-height:139%'>tions under the
same license.<sup>85</sup> While many ignored or were not aware of this
license, it made it difficult for developers under stricter constraints (such
as in a corporate environment) to use Stack Overflow. If they posted a
question asking for help with their code, and a stranger fixed it, legally,
they would have had to attribute the code to that person.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:49.3pt;margin-bottom:
19.5pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:139%'>As a result,
Stack Overflow announced an intent to move all new code contributions to the
MIT License, which is an open source license with fewer restrictions.<sup>86</sup>
As of April 2016, they are still actively discussing and soliciting feedback
from the community on the best way to implement more permissiveness.<sup>87</sup>
This move is a nod to both Stack Overflow’s popularity and the proliferation
of open source at large. That a developer working at a big software company
could legally include a complete stranger’s code in a product they charge for
is an accomplishment for open source, indeed.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:25.6pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.55pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.05pt;line-height:
107%'>GitHub, by contrast, initially avoided providing default licensing for
projects posted to its platform, perhaps fearing it would slow user adoption
and growth.<sup>88</sup> Projects posted to GitHub, then, grant the right to
view and fork the project, but are otherwise protected under copyright,
unless the developer specifies an open source license.</p>
</td>
<td width=97 valign=top style='width:72.9pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:454.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>85 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:144.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>86 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://meta.stackexchange.
com/questions/271080/themit-license-clarity-on-usingcode-on-stack-overflow-andstack-exchange</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>87 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:100.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://meta.stackexchange.
com/questions/272956/anew-code-license-the-mitthis-time-with-attributionrequired</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>88 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://www.infoworld.com/
article/2615869/opensource-software/githubneeds-to-take-open-sourceseriously.html</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:98.0pt;margin-bottom:
5.65pt;margin-left:4.05pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left
hspace=12><img width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"
align=left hspace=12>From the beginning, Stack Overflow used a Creative Commons
license called CC-BY-SA for all content posted to the website. This license was
limiting, however, because it required that users provide attribution when
using others’ code, as well as distribute contribu-</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=626 style='width:469.65pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:299.8pt'>
<td width=529 valign=top style='width:397.0pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:299.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:26.85pt;
margin-left:1.25pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>license from a list of
options when creating a new repository.<sup>89</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:35.2pt;margin-bottom:
19.65pt;margin-left:1.2pt;text-indent:-.15pt;line-height:138%'>What’s
interesting, however, is that many developers were either not aware that
their “open source” projects were not legally protected, or didn’t care. An
informal 2013 study by the Software Freedom Law Center of 1.6 million GitHub
repositories revealed that only 15% had specified a license.<sup>90</sup>
Conversations with developers for this report suggested that many didn’t care
to put up a license, or figured that if someone asked, they could just add
one later.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:23.7pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:1.3pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-1.3pt;line-height:
107%'>This lack of interest in licensing led James Governor, cofounder of
developer analyst firm Red Monk, to observe in 2012 that <i>“younger devs
today are about POSS - Post open source software. Fuck the license and
governance, just commit to Github”</i>.<sup>91</sup> In other words,
defaulting to open information is so culturally obvious today that developers
don’t </p>
</td>
<td width=97 valign=top style='width:72.65pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:299.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>89 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:64.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://www.infoworld.com/
article/2611422/open-sourcesoftware/github-finally-takes-open-source-licenses-seriously.html</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>90 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://www.theregister.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:100.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>co.uk/2013/04/18/github_licensing_study/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>91 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://twitter.com/
monkchips/status/247584170967175169</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:27.7pt;margin-right:101.45pt;margin-bottom:
2.4pt;margin-left:3.95pt'><img width=11 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=11
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=10 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image007.gif" align=left
hspace=12>In 2013, facing public concerns, GitHub finally decided to take a
stronger stance on licensing, including the creation and promotion of a
microsite, choosealicense.com, to help users pick a license for their project.
They also now encourage their users to choose a </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:5.45pt;margin-right:99.2pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:4.0pt'>see themselves as doing something differently
anymore, the way the political free software rebels did in the 1980s. This
shift in values, while inspiring on a macro level, could lead to legal
complications for individuals as their projects grow in popularity or are used
for commercial purposes.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:72.2pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:4.05pt'>But by making it so easy and standardized to
collaborate on code together, open source is also grappling with a perverse set
of externalities.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:4.0pt;line-height:107%'>Open source made coding easier and more
accessible to the world. </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:75.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>This increased accessibility, in turn, has created a
new class of developers who are less experienced, but who know how to utilize
others’ prefabricated components to build what they need.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:97.7pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>In 2012, Jeff Atwood, the
cofounder of Stack Overflow, wrote a tongue-in-cheek blog post called “Please
Don’t Learn How to Code”, lamenting the trendiness of coding bootcamps and
schools. While Atwood commended the desire of nontechnical people to understand
code on a conceptual level, he warned against assuming that </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:58.9pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:6.4pt;text-indent:-3.95pt;line-height:135%'><i>“adding naive,
novice, not-even-sure-they-like-this-whole-programmingthing coders to the
workforce is a net positive for the world.” </i><sup>92 </sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:135%'>92</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:135%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 53507"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:135%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:7.95pt;
margin-left:400.1pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://blog.codinghorror.
com/please-dont-learn-tocode/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.85pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:4.05pt'>Under these circumstances, the open source
development model looks different than it did before. Prior to GitHub’s rise,
because there were fewer open source projects, developers were a smaller but on
the whole more experienced group, and those who used shared code were likely
also the people contributing back.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:97.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Today, the hypergrowth of coding literacy means many
inexperienced developers are flooding the market. These newer developers borrow
shared code to write what they need, but they are less capable of making
substantial contributions back to those projects. Many are also accustomed to
thinking of themselves as “users” of open source projects, rather than members
of a community. Because open source tools are more standardized and easy to
use, it’s much easier these days for someone to pop into a GitHub forum and
make a rude comment or demanding request, which burdens and exasperates project
maintainers.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:93.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>These changing demographics have also led to a much
more fragmented system of software, with many developers releasing new projects
and creating a confusing web of dependencies. Drew Hamlett, who calls himself a
“recovering magpie developer,” wrote a popular post in January 2016 called “The
Sad State of Web Development,” about how web development has changed, referring
specifically to the Node.js ecosystem:</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=569 style='width:426.95pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:16.75pt'>
<td width=479 valign=top style='width:359.55pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:16.75pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>just don’t understand. The
only thing I can think, is people are </span></i></p>
</td>
<td width=90 valign=top style='width:67.4pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:16.75pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:49.1pt'>
<td width=479 valign=top style='width:359.55pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:49.1pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>just constantly re writing
Node.js apps over and over.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'>93</span></sup></p>
</td>
<td width=90 valign=top style='width:67.4pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:49.1pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>93 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://medium.com/@
wob/the-sad-state-of-webdevelopment-1603a861d29f#.443lcznv1</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.5pt;margin-bottom:
60.6pt;margin-left:39.45pt;text-indent:-4.2pt;line-height:128%'><img width=53
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image015.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif" align=left
hspace=12><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>The people who have stayed in the Node community have
undoubtedly created the most over engineered eco system [sic] that has ever
appeared. No one can create a library that does anything. Every project that
creeps up is even more ambitious than the next….No one will build something
that actually does anything. I </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:100.05pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>There are so many projects being written and released
today that it is simply not feasible for each one to grow a large, sustainable
community with regular contributors who passionately discuss changes over
extensive mailing list discussions. Instead, many projects will be maintained
by just one or two people. But demand for those projects by users might still
outpace the work that is required to maintain it.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:4.0pt'>GitHub made it easy to create and contribute to new
projects. This was a blessing for the open source ecosystem, because projects
develop more rapidly, but it can be a curse to any one project maintainer, with
more people easily reporting issues and requesting new features, without
actually contributing back themselves. These shallow interactions only create
more work for the maintainers, who are expected to address a growing volume of
requests.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:83.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:3.95pt'>It would not be unreasonable to suggest that a
“post-open source” world carries implications not just for licensing, as James
Governor originally intended with his comment, but for the process of
development itself.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:4.1pt;line-height:107%'>Noah Kantrowitz, a longtime Python
developer and member of the </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:4.1pt;line-height:107%'>Python Software Foundation, summarized this
shift in a widely </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:4.25pt'>cited blog post:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:68.95pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>In the early days of the open source movement there were </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:18.5pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>relatively few projects and
in general most people using a </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:84.25pt;margin-bottom:
20.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>project were also contributing back to it in some way. Both of
these have changed by likely uncountable orders of magnitude.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.95pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>[...] As we have moved to more and more niche tools, it becomes
harder to justify the time investment to become a contributor. ‘Scratching your
own itch’ is still a powerful moti-</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:21.1pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>vator, but that alone is difficult to build an ecosystem on.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:58.7pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>The other problem is the growing imbalance between producers and
consumers. In the past, these were roughly in balance. Everyone put time and
effort in to the Commons and everyone reaped the benefits. These days, very few
people put in that effort and the vast majority simply benefit from those that
do. This imbalance has become so ingrained that for a company to re-pay (in
either time or money) even a small fraction of the value they derive from the
Commons is almost unthinkable.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'>94 </span></sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:128%'>94</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 54446"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:128%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:11.9pt;
margin-left:400.1pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://coderanger.net/ funding-foss/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:102.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>This is not to say that big open source projects with
strong contributor communities do not exist anymore. (Node.js, which will be
discussed later in this paper, is an example of a project that has achieved
this status.) It is that in addition to these successes, there is a new class
of projects today that is underserved by open source’s current norms and
expectations, and that the behavior deriving from these new norms has affected
even longer-running, bigger projects.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:90.15pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:4.0pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>Hynek
Schlawack, a Python Software Foundation fellow and contributor to Python
infrastructure projects, frets about a future with a wider demand base but only
a handful of keystone contributors:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:85.2pt;margin-bottom:
20.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>What frustrates me most is that we have an all-time high of Python
developers and an all-time low on high quality contributions.[...] As soon as
pivotal developers like Armin Ronacher slow down their churn, the whole
community feels it immediately. The moment Paul Kehrer stops working on PyCA
we’re screwed. If Hawkowl stops porting, Twisted will never be on Python 3 and
git.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:89.2pt;margin-bottom:
22.4pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>So we’re bleeding due to people who cause more work than they
provide. [...] Right now everyone is benefitting from what has been built but
due to lack of funding and contributions it’s deteriorating. I find that
worrying, because Python might be super popular right now but once the
consequences hit us, the opportunists will leave as fast as they arrived.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;color:black'>95</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.9pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:4.0pt'>Open source has only been popular among mainstream
developers for perhaps five years; its long-term sustainability is rarely
discussed, or even acknowledged, by the broader software community. With the
explosion of new developers using, but not giving back to, shared code, we are
building palaces on top of crumbling infrastructure.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection22>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>95 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 54805"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Email interview with Hynek </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Schlawack</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection23>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.55pt;margin-bottom:
12.4pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>The hidden costs of ignoring infrastructure</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>As we’ve seen, digital infrastructure is a critical part of
today’s world. Our society is built on software, and that software is
increasingly built on infrastructure that uses open source methodology. By not
taking steps to understand and support our digital infrastructure, what is at
risk?</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:11.6pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>The dangers of not investing back into
digital infrastructure can be divided into two categories: direct and indirect
costs.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=516
style='width:387.0pt;margin-left:2.15pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:86.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 36.0pt;height:86.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:16.1pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.05pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.1pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Direct costs</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> include unspotted bugs and
security vulnerabilities that could be exploited for malicious intent or lead
to unexpected breaks in software functionality. These costs are acutely felt
and cause problems that need to be immediately addressed.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 36.0pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:69.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 36.0pt;height:69.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:16.85pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.2pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Indirect costs</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> include things like loss of
qualified labor and slower growth and innovation. While they are not
immediately obvious, they represent uncaptured social value.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2 style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:8.5pt;margin-left:
2.35pt'>Bugs, security vulnerabilities, and interruptions in service</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>The introduction to this report profiled the security bug
Heartbleed, which was discovered in April 2014 in a software library called
OpenSSL. Heartbleed, because it was so widespread and affected so many major
websites, drew significant public attention to the security vulnerabilities in
software.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>In September 2014, another major
security vulnerability was found in a key tool called Bash. Bash is included in
popular operating systems like Linux and Mac OS, and as a result, is installed
on more </p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection24>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>than 70% of the machines connected to the Internet.<sup>96</sup>
The set of security bugs, dubbed “Shellshock,” could be exploited to allow
someone unauthorized access to a computer system. The vulnerabilities had gone
undetected for at least a decade. Bash was originally authored by a developer
named Brian Fox in 1987, but since 1992 has been maintained by a single
developer, Chet Ramey. He works as a senior technology architect at Case
Western University in Ohio.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:15.4pt;margin-bottom:
25.1pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Another project, OpenSSH, provides a free suite of
security-related programs with widespread use across the web. Developers have
discovered multiple security vulnerabilities in its code that have been
subsequently addressed and fixed, including one in July 2015 that could allow
attackers to bypass limits on password login attempts, and one in January 2016
that could leak private security keys.<sup>97 98</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Part of the problem is that many open source projects are
legacy tools, built once by a passionate developer or group of developers, who
then lacked resources to manage their project’s success. Over </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=531 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>96 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
215.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://timesofindia.
indiatimes.com/tech/
tech-news/Security-experts-expect-Shellshock-software-bug-to-be-significant/
articleshow/43657819.cms</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=531 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>97 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
3.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.scmagazineuk.
com/openssh-flaw-opensthe-door-to-brute-force-attackers/article/428304/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=531 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=9 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image004.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>98</span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=626 style='width:469.6pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:172.35pt'>
<td width=483 valign=top style='width:362.05pt;padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 0cm;
height:172.35pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.4pt;margin-bottom:
20.0pt;margin-left:.6pt;text-indent:.1pt;line-height:136%'>time,
contributions decline as others get bored and move on, but the project is
still in active use, leaving one or two people to figure out how to keep it
alive.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:96.9pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.45pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:
107%'>Another growing issue in today’s software world, with so many new and
inexperienced developers, is that security concepts are not taught or
prioritized. New developers simply want to write code that works; they don’t
know how to make software secure, or they mistakenly assume that the public
code they use in their software has </p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:109%;color:black'>http://arstechnica.com/security/2016/01/bug-that-canleak-crypto-keys-just-fixedin-widely-used-openssh/
</span>been audited for security. Even best practices around safely disclosing
or managing vulnerabilities are not commonly taught or understood. Security
only becomes an issue once a developer’s code has become compromised.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>Christopher
Allen coauthored the first version of the Transport Layer Security (TLS)
protocol, whose subsequent versions became a security standard used almost
universally online, including by websites like Google, Facebook and YouTube.
Although today it is a standard, of its origins, Christopher writes:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:22.4pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>As the co-author of TLS I would not have predicted 15 years
later that over half of the Internet would be using an implementation of TLS
maintained by a 1/4 time engineer. This lack of support led to the infamous
Heartbleed bug. I tell my cryptocurrency colleagues this story today to warn
them that their leading edge crypto today may be ‘boring’ in a decade and
suffer the same fate as it will no longer be exciting and their future hard
work may be compromised.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'>99</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Finally, the stability of our software potentially relies
upon the good faith and cooperation of hundreds of developers, which introduces
significant risk. The fragility of our digital infrastructure was recently
demonstrated by a developer named Azer Koçulu.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Azer, a Node.js developer, hosted a number of libraries on a
package manager platform called npm. After a conflict with npm over trademark
rights on one of his projects, Azer, frustrated with the outcome, decided to
remove everything he had ever published to npm.<sup>100</sup> One of those
libraries, left-pad, was referenced in hundreds of other software projects.
Although it was just a few lines of code, by </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>99 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=11 height=1 id="Group 55860"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:119.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://medium.com/@
christophera/i-ve-beenworking-to-address-this-gapfor-a-while-thus-my-recentexploration-of-the-commons-in-my-8094d41a874a#.
qyh31ida4 Quote edited for clarity by source.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>100</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 55861"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image016.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://medium.com/@
azerbike/i-ve-just-liberated-my-modules9045c06be67c#.4sdbklvqv</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection25>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=622 style='width:466.7pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:88.55pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:395.65pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:88.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:29.4pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.05pt;line-height:107%'>ecosystem.<sup>101</sup>
Npm also revised its policies to make it harder for developers to remove
their libraries without warning, recognizing how individual actions could
negatively affect so many others.<sup>102</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=95 valign=top style='width:71.1pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:88.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>101 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://www.theregister.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>co.uk/2016/03/23/npm_left_ pad_chaos/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>102 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://blog.npmjs.org/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>post/141577284765/kik-leftpad-and-npm</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:65.45pt;margin-bottom:
85.45pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=12 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image016.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=14
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left hspace=12>removing
the left-pad project, Azer broke countless other software developers’
processes. Azer’s decision caused so many issues that npm made the
unprecedented decision to republish his library, against Azer’s will, in order
to restore functionality to the rest of the </p>
<h2 style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:8.5pt;margin-left:
2.35pt'>Software not getting the necessary maintenance it needs</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:68.25pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Building digital infrastructure in a haphazard
fashion means that all software gets built more slowly and inefficiently. One
example of this can be found in the history of Python infrastructure.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:57.85pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>An important infrastructure project for Python
developers is called Setuptools. Setuptools provides a set of tools that make
writing Python easier and more standardized.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:64.35pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Setuptools was written by a developer named PJ Eby in
2004. Over the next four years, Setuptools saw widespread adoption. However,
Setuptools was difficult to implement and use, and Eby was largely unreceptive
to outside contributions and fixes, wanting to maintain— as its original
author—final say over Setuptools. In 2008, a group of developers, led by Tarek
Ziade, decided to fork the project to force Eby to make improvements. They
called the new project Distribute.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>In 2013, these projects were once again
merged under Setuptools. </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:41.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The multi-year rift, however, underscored both the dubious
state of Python’s infrastructure tools, and the difficulty of making
improvements—in part because there was nobody dedicated and willing to address
the community’s problems.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection26>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.95pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Python tools began to improve once the working group Python
Packaging Authority (PyPA) was formed to focus specifically on setting better
standards for packaging. One developer, Donald Stufft, made Python packaging
tools his primary focus and was hired by HP (now under HPE) in May 2015 to
continue his work. (His story will be discussed later in this report.)<sup>103</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Another example involves RubyGems.org, a website that most
Ruby developers use to host their Ruby libraries. Ruby has been used to build
major websites including Twitter, AirBnB, YellowPages, and GitHub itself.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>In 2013, a security flaw in RubyGems.org was discovered, but
went unfixed for several days, because RubyGems.org was maintained entirely by
volunteers. The volunteers planned to address it that weekend, but in the
meantime someone else discovered the flaw and hacked the RubyGems.org server.
Following the hack, the servers had to be rebuilt from scratch. Several
volunteers took time off work, and some even took personal vacation days, in
order to get RubyGems.org up and running again as soon as possible. Because
RubyGems.org is a critical piece of Ruby infrastructure, the security issue
affected many developers and companies in turn.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>The incident highlighted how pure volunteer labor limited
the amount of security and reliability that could be provided to important
software infrastructure. Dozens of developers “volunteered” during the
incident, since the problem affected their regular jobs. Unfortunately, none of
them had the previous experience needed to be helpful, and none of them
continued to offer to help once the servers were repaired. In 2015, an organization
called Ruby Together was formed to help pay pay for maintenance and development
of </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>103</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 55060"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image016.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Email interview with Russell </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Keith-Magee and Hynek </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Schlawack</span><br clear=all
style='page-break-before:always'>
</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:3.6pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Ruby’s infrastructure, including RubyGems.org, using company
sponsorships.<sup>104</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:9.7pt;
margin-left:3.3pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'> </p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Loss of qualified labor</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Like any community of volunteers, burnout is common among
open source contributors, who find themselves fielding requests, from both
individual users and companies, for work without compensation.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>Many
developers have stories about getting requests from companies for free work.
Daniel Roy Greenfeld, a Python and Django developer, wrote:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:22.8pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>I personally get regular demands for unpaid work (Discussions
about payment for work always stall) by healthy high profit companies large and
small for [my projects]. If I don't respond in a timely fashion, if I'm not
willing to accept a crappy pull request, I/we get labeled a jerk. There is
nothing like having core Python/PyPA maintainers working for Redhat [sic] demanding
unpaid work while criticizing what they consider your project's shortcomings to
ruin your day and diminish your belief in open source.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;color:black'>105</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>(Red Hat is a multinational software company with annual
revenue exceeding $2B which sells open source software solutions to enterprise
customers.<sup>106</sup> Because of the nature of their business, Red Hat
employees use and contribute to many open source projects; in some ways, Red
Hat has become the business poster child of open source. The company’s
financial success will be discussed later in this report.)</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>104 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 55338"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:367.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Phone and email interview with André Arko.
Thanks to André for his edits.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>105 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 55339"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:47.9pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://github.com/pybee/
paying-the-piper/issues/26</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>106</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 55340"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://fortune.
com/2016/03/22/red-hat-revenue-2-billion-open-source/</span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=619 style='width:464.2pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:32.3pt'>
<td width=472 valign=top style='width:353.8pt;padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm .25pt;
height:32.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:56.9pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.15pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.15pt;line-height:
107%'>Read the Docs, the aforementioned documentation hosting service,
explicitly states on its website that they do not support custom </p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:1.5pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>company installations and private support.<sup>107</sup> One
of the maintainers, Eric Holscher, went as far as to comment, <i>“Pretty sure
there is </i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.6pt;
margin-left:2.75pt;text-indent:-.3pt;line-height:107%'><i>very little value in
Read the Docs being open source, as private users </i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:23.7pt;
margin-left:2.75pt;text-indent:-.3pt;line-height:135%'><i>never contribute
back, only ask for free support.” </i><sup>108</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Marquess, the OpenSSL contributor, made a
tongue-in-cheek remark </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=13 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image020.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>107 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
23.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://docs.readthedocs.io/
en/latest/open-source-philosophy.html</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=12 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image016.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>108</span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=627 style='width:470.5pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:511.95pt'>
<td width=624 valign=top style='width:467.7pt;padding:0cm 1.85pt 0cm .9pt;
height:511.95pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:24.2pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>to these
repeated requests in his post about funding:</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=492 style='width:369.35pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:57.7pt'>
<td width=480 valign=top style='width:359.75pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:57.7pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:29.65pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.3pt;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>to wrangle crypto code, and who then nag us for free
consulting services when you can’t figure out how to use it. The ones who
have never lifted a finger to contribute to the open source </span></i></p>
</td>
<td width=13 valign=top style='width:9.65pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:57.7pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:
8.0pt;margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:17.75pt'>
<td width=480 valign=top style='width:359.75pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:17.75pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.45pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>community that gave you this gift. You know who you are.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>109</span></sup></p>
</td>
<td width=13 valign=top style='width:9.65pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:17.75pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;
text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>109 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.8pt;margin-bottom:
4.5pt;margin-left:36.55pt;text-indent:-1.05pt;line-height:132%'><img
width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left
hspace=12><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:132%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>I’m looking at you, Fortune 1000 companies. The ones who
include OpenSSL in your firewall/appliance/cloud/financial/ security products
that you sell for profit, and/or who use it to secure your internal
infrastructure and communications. The ones who don’t have to fund an
in-house team of programmers </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:2.55pt;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:396.1pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:
109%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://veridicalsystems.com/
blog/of-money-responsibili-</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:38.35pt;
margin-bottom:4.1pt;margin-left:0cm;text-align:right;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>ty-and-pride/
</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:94.0pt;margin-bottom:
20.0pt;margin-left:.35pt;text-indent:-.35pt;line-height:136%'>Some developers
choose to stop maintaining their projects because they no longer have the
time to dedicate to it, and hope that somebody else picks up where they left
off. Meanwhile, companies, governments and individuals depend on these
libraries for their continued use, unaware of the underlying situation.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.35pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>David Michael Ross, an
engineering manager at a web agency, wrote </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:24.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>of his experience:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:71.9pt;
margin-left:35.5pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>That's the big thing for me. [...] It's knowing you did
something </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:14.6pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>for free, out of love, and
there's an endless stream out people </span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://twitter.com/
ericholscher/status/689569190043201536</span><br clear=all style='page-break-before:
always'>
</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:20.6pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>going ‘more! more!’ and getting angry when you won't accommodate
their edge case.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:22.45pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>I had my phone number on one of my personal sites so friends
could get in touch with me. Took it down after a week because people would call
me in the middle of the day for plugin support, even though there's a forum for
support. There's nothing inherently wrong with that, it just wears you down.
Makes you afraid to check email or answer the phone.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;color:black'>110</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>Ryan Bigg, who
writes documentation for the software framework Ruby on Rails, announced in
November 2015 that he was quitting all open source work, explaining:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:22.45pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>I do not have the time or energy to invest in open source any
more. I am not being paid at all to do any open source work, and so the work
that I do there is time that I could be spending doing ‘life stuff,’ or
writing. It is not fair to expect me to do even more work outside of my regular
work, and then not get fairly compensated (time or money) for it. It's also a
great recipe for burnout and making me just generally grumpy.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;color:black'>111</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Loss of qualified labor also does not just refer to open
source contributors who quit, but those who never join in the first place.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>There are very few statistics on the demographics of open
source contributors, which is telling in itself. A recent analysis of GitHub
found that just 5.4% of open source contributors were women, compared to
roughly 15 to 20% of technical roles at software companies overall.<sup>112</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>110 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 55533"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:207.9pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://news.ycombinator.
com/item?id=8712370</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>111 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=10 height=1 id="Group 55540"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image021.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:143.9pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://ryanbigg.com/2015/11/
open-source-work/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>112 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 55543"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>The 5.4% figure refers to open source
contributors with more than ten contributions. http://www.toptal.com/
open-source/is-open-sourceopen-to-women </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>One reason why open source contributors are strikingly more
homogenous than the technology sector at large is that they need time and money
to make significant contributions in the first place. These constraints prevent
otherwise qualified contributors from entering the space.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>David MacIver,
creator of Hypothesis, a Python library for testing software applications,
explains why he was able to spend so much time on the project:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:22.4pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>I could only do this because I had the time and money to do so.
I had the time to do so because I was being obsessive, had no dependents, and
didn’t have a job. I could only not have a job because of the money. I only had
the money because I spent the latter half of last year with double the salary I
was used to, half the living expenses I was used to, and too borderline
depressed to spend it on anything interesting. These are not reasonable
requirements. [...] Can you produce quality software in less time than that,
working only in your free time? I doubt it.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;color:black'>113</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>Cory Benfield,
a core Python developer, writes:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Generally speaking, people who aren’t cisgender, heterosexual,
white, middle-class, English-speaking men are less able to tolerate the
increased financial risk of not having a steady job. This means that those
individuals really need a steady pay cheque to contribute most effectively. And
we *need* those contributors: diverse teams make better things than homogeneous
teams.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;
color:black'>114</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>113 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 55395"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:147.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.drmaciver.
com/2015/04/its-ok-for-youropen-source-library-to-be-abit-shitty/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>114 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 55398"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Email interview with Cory Benfield</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Charlotte Spencer, a contributor to
software framework Hoodie and </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>database PouchDB, echoes these sentiments:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:9.2pt;
margin-bottom:72.05pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:108%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:108%;font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>All my contributions are purely
volunteered. I don't make any </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:3.2pt;
margin-bottom:.15pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:108%'><b><span style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:108%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:108%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>money, though I would absolutely like to. I have asked veteran </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:22.5pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>open sourcerers if they are paid and they say they are not,
which discouraged me from pursuing anything (if they aren't paid, why would I
be?). I use most of my free time to do it, which I'm trying to do less of as it
was taking up my life.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:
128%;color:black'>115</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Jessica Lord, a developer, actively contributed to open
source while working at Code for America, a nonprofit organization that
supports technology in the public sector. An urban planner by education, she
stresses that she had <i>“no computer science degree, no real production
programing [sic] experience but a GitHub portfolio.”</i><sup>116</sup> Her
regular contributions drew the attention of GitHub itself, where she now works
today.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>However, Jessica points out that she
was able to contribute to open source under a “privileged” set of
circumstances: she took a pay cut to work at Code for America, burned through
her savings, worked </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:7.65pt;
margin-left:3.95pt;text-indent:-3.2pt'>“nearly constantly” on open source
projects, and had a community of support.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:2.95pt;text-indent:14.3pt;line-height:128%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>must to do better. We need
all the ideas from all the people. </span></i>Of lack of diversity in open
source, Jessica writes:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:3.2pt;
margin-bottom:23.6pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:108%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:108%;font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>The value of common knowledge cannot be
overestimated. We </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>That's what we should be aiming for.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>115 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 55813"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:83.9pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Email interview with Charlotte Spencer</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>116 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 55814"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://jlord.us/blog/osos-talk. html</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection27>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:4.85pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>We need an open source for everyone. Not just for the privileged
</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:5.9pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:108%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:108%;color:black'> </span><i><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:108%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>and
not even just for the developers.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:108%;color:black'>117 </span></sup><sup><span
style='font-size:9.0pt;line-height:108%'>117</span></sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:108%;color:black'>http://jlord.us/blog/osos-talk.</span><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:108%;color:black'><img width=10 height=1
id="Group 55838" src="roads-and_filtered_files/image021.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:62.5pt;
margin-bottom:15.95pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>html</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.1pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Jessica’s last point also underlines how enabling
more diverse perspectives in open source can help sustain open source itself.
From a functional perspective, the vast majority of open source contributors
are developers, but plenty of other roles are needed to sustain larger
projects, including writing, project management, and outreach. Open source
projects are not dissimilar from other types of organizations, including
startups, where administration, marketing, design, and other roles are needed
to support an organization’s raw output. It is partially because open source
culture is so heavily weighted to developers that sustainability is rarely
discussed or acted upon.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:108.15pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Finally, the homogeneity of open source contributors
impacts diversity efforts in technology at large, because it is so closely tied
to hiring. As previously mentioned, many employers use open source
contributions, including GitHub profiles, to discover potential new hires or to
check a candidate’s qualifications. Employers who rely heavily upon evidence of
open source contributions are drawing from an extremely narrow pool of
candidates.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:107%'>Ashe Dryden, in an
influential essay called “The Ethics of Unpaid </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.05pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-indent:14.25pt;line-height:128%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>their publicly available
code excludes far more than marginal</span></i>Labor and the OSS Community,”
explained:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:21.1pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Deciding that someone is a good programmer based solely on </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:96.6pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>ized people. It also excludes anyone who can't release their
code publicly because of licensing or security reasons. This also includes a
large number of freelancers and contractors who are unable to publicly claim
that they worked on a project for legal reasons (NDAs, for instance). In an
industry where we are struggling to find enough talent, why are we artificially
limit-</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:128%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'> </span><i><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>ing
the talent pool? </span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:
128%'>118 </span></sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:128%'>118</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'><img width=10 height=1 id="Group 55327"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image021.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:7.95pt;
margin-left:396.75pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.ashedryden.com/
blog/the-ethics-of-unpaid-labor-and-the-oss-community</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:108.1pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>How can we mitigate or avoid some
of these costs associated with participating in the building of digital
infrastructure today? First, let’s look at how infrastructure projects are
currently supported.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection28>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:466.65pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:-107.35pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:
107%'><img width=818 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image013.gif"><br
clear=ALL>
<br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.55pt;margin-bottom:
12.4pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>Business models for digital infrastructure</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Some parts of digital infrastructure function well in a
business context. Databases and hosting services, for example, tend to be
well-funded and profitable businesses, because they can charge for access. Like
electricity or water utilities, access to a server or database can be metered,
charged for, and shut off if fees go unpaid.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Heroku (mentioned at the beginning of this paper) and Amazon
Web Services are two prominent examples of platforms that sell digital
infrastructure services to software developers for a fee. (Note that neither
project is open source.) Similar open source projects at this level of
infrastructure, such as OpenStack (a platform competitive to Amazon Web
Services) or MySQL (a database), have found corporate homes. OpenStack is
funded by a consortium of companies and MySQL was acquired by Oracle.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Part of what makes these services financially attractive is
the lack of noise. A developer may use 20 different libraries, all with
different functions, in a single software application, but they only need one
database. Therefore, successful projects are more likely to get the attention
and care that they need.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Another helpful way of thinking about
infrastructure that can be charged for is that if there is an immediate risk of
downtime, it probably has a business model. In other words, a server can have
unexpected interruptions in service, the way electricity might unexpectedly
shut off, but a programming language does not “break” or have downtime in the </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>same way, because it is a system of information.<sup>119</sup></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection29>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:399.25pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>119 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:398.75pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
11.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 56600"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:399.25pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Thanks to Sam Gerstenzang
for framing this distinction: https://
twitter.com/gerstenzang/status/687404438005366784</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:123.2pt;margin-bottom:
25.45pt;margin-left:.95pt'>For these types of open source projects, business
models tend to revolve around finding services or support to charge for. This
works for projects with significant enterprise use, particularly when the
problem is technically complex, or a company needs a feature to be built.</p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Bounties</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>On a small scale, individuals or companies
sometimes post </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:111.6pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:3.75pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-3.0pt'>“bounties”,
which are cash prizes for certain development milestones. For example, IBM
regularly requests new features for various projects using a website called
Bountysource, offering up to $5,000 per task. Bountysource is a popular
platform to find and post </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'>bounties; it has over 26,000 members.<sup>120 </sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>120</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 56401"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:107%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:15.9pt;
margin-left:399.25pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://www.bountysource.
com/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:110.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Bounties help address the aforementioned issues of
simply donating to a project. Because bounties are clearly tied to an outcome,
the money will get used. On the other hand, bounties can create perverse
incentives for contributing to a project.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:107.15pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Bounties can dictate which work does or doesn’t get
done, and sometimes that work doesn’t align with a project’s priorities. It can
also introduce noise into the system: for example, a company could offer an
expensive bounty for a feature that the project owners do not consider
important.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:113.0pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>On the contributor side, outsiders with no knowledge
of a project might jump in just to complete the bounty, then leave. Or, they
might do a poor job of completing the request, because they are trying to
collect bounties. Finally, bounties can be appropriate for funding new features
or prominent bugs, but are less practical for funding ongoing operations, such
as customer support or maintenance.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:108.6pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>Jeff Atwood,
the creator of Stack Overflow, noted these problems with bounty programs,
particularly with regard to security:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.2pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>One unfortunate side effect of this bug bounty trend is that it
attracts not just bona fide programmers interested in security, but anyone
interested in easy money. We've gotten too many </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.95pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>‘serious’ security bug reports that were extremely low value.
And we have to follow up on these, because they are ‘serious,’ right?
Unfortunately, many of them are a waste of time…The incentives feel really
wrong to me. As much as I know security is incredibly important, I view these
interactions with an increasing sense of dread because they generate work for
me and the </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:71.8pt;
margin-bottom:6.7pt;margin-left:3.35pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>121 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:110%;color:black'> </span><i><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:110%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>returns
are low.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:110%;
color:black'>121 </span></sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://blog.codinghorror.</span><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1
id="Group 57026" src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:17.45pt;
margin-left:399.25pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>com/given-enough-moneyall-bugs-are-shallow/</span></p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Services</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:119.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>On a larger scale, one of the best-known and
oft-cited examples of an open source business model is Red Hat, the
aforementioned enterprise company, which offers support, training and other
services to enterprises that use Linux. Red Hat was founded in 1993 and is a
publicly traded company with reported revenues of $2B per year.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:113.75pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Although Red Hat has been wildly successful from a
financial standpoint, many are quick to point out that it is an anomaly
unlikely to be repeated again. Red Hat benefited from first mover advantage for
the technology it supports. Matt Asay, a journalist who focuses on open source,
noted that Red Hat uses a unique set of patents and </p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection30>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:23.35pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>licensing to protect its enterprise market. Asay, once a
major proponent of open source businesses, now believes that some proprietary
licensing is necessary to build a serious business.<sup>122</sup> Matthew Aslet
of the 451 Group, a research group, similarly found that most successful “open
source” enterprises actually use some form of commercial licensing.<sup>123</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.75pt;text-indent:3.0pt'>Docker, the previously mentioned open
source project that helps applications run efficiently, is a more recent
example of a company attempting this model. Docker has raised $180M in venture
capital from investors, with a reported $1B valuation from private investors.<sup>124</sup>
As their market share has grown, Docker has begun offering enterprise-level support
services. Yet without strong revenues, Docker could simply be another example
of venture capital making a “loss leader” infrastructure investment.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>On a smaller scale, many developers offer consulting
services to subsidize their work. Hoodie is a lightweight software framework
based on Node that has found success with consulting services. Hoodie itself is
an open source project. Several maintainers earn money through a boutique firm,
Neighbourhoodie, that offers software development services.<sup>125</sup>
Although Neighbourhoodie specializes in the Hoodie framework, Hoodie is still a
fairly new project, so some of their work comes from non-Hoodie-related projects.<sup>126</sup>
In Hoodie’s case, the services model is meant to support the salaries of
several maintainers, rather than aiming for a Red Hat-sized enterprise
strategy.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;
text-align:center;text-indent:0cm;line-height:136%'>Consulting is a viable
option for independent developers, if there are enough people using the project
who are willing and able to pay for extra help. However, on a small scale, it
can also distract developers </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>122 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=13 height=1 id="Group 57381"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image022.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:19.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.theregister.
co.uk/2011/03/29/red_hat_ billions/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>123</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 57382"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:59.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://blogs.
the451group.com/opensource/2008/10/13/opensource-is-not-a-businessmodel/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>124 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=13 height=1 id="Group 57383"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image022.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:159.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://www.crunchbase.
com/organization/docker#/ entity</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>125 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 57386"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:19.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://neighbourhood.ie/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>126 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 57389"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Phone call interview with Jan Lehnardt</span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=618 style='width:463.65pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:172.35pt'>
<td width=480 valign=top style='width:359.85pt;padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm .75pt;
height:172.35pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:82.45pt;margin-bottom:
20.0pt;margin-left:.65pt;text-indent:-.05pt;line-height:136%'>from improving
the project itself, as the one or two maintainers are now spending their time
building a business and providing services that may or may not align with a
project’s maintenance needs.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:76.9pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.5pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:
107%'>Aiming for a consulting business can also put creators at odds with
making the product easy to use and get started with, which is in the spirit
of open source. Twisted, the aforementioned Python library, shared a playful
testimony from one of its users, a company called Mailman: <i>“You guys have
a big problem, because it was way too easy to </i></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:23.65pt;
margin-left:2.75pt;text-indent:-.3pt;line-height:135%'><i>do! How are you going
to make the big consulting bucks? :)” </i><sup>127</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:25.45pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>In the end, the “business model” for an open source project
is not dissimilar from simply freelancing.</p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Paid licenses</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Some developers feel that licensing could provide at least a
partial solution to open source’s funding problems. If open source projects are
being heavily used, why not charge for them?</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>These “paid licenses” are not technically open source
licenses, according to the Open Source Initiative’s definition.<sup>128</sup>
Rather, they are initiatives attempting to balance the very real need for paid
work with the desire to make code available to the public. This type of code
might be called “source visible” or “source available.” Fair Source, for
example, describes itself as <i>“[offering] some of the benefits of open source
while preserving the ability to charge for the software.” </i><sup>129</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=13 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image020.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>127 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
203.9pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://twistedmatrix.com/
trac/wiki/SuccessStories</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=531 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>128 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
79.9pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://opensource.org/
definition</span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=629 style='width:471.75pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:32.3pt'>
<td width=475 valign=top style='width:356.05pt;padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 0cm;
height:32.3pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:88.1pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:1.45pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-1.45pt;line-height:
107%'>The Fair Source license was announced in November 2015 by a company
called Sourcegraph to address the need for a paid license. </p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:29.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt;line-height:218%'><img width=14 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left hspace=12><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:218%'>129 </span><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:218%;color:black'>https://fair.io/ </span>The license terms
were drafted by Heather Meeker, a lawyer who also worked on the core team for
the Mozilla Public License v2.0.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Under Fair Source, code is free to view, download, execute,
and modify up to a certain number of users in an organization. After that limit
is reached, the organization must pay a licensing fee, determined by the
publisher.<sup>130</sup> In other words, Fair Source code is free for personal
and small business use, but provides a legal basis to charge for bigger
commercial use cases.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Sourcegraph’s announcement of the Fair Source license, which
they themselves now use, sparked a spirited debate about monetizing open
source. (It is worth noting that a comparable “shareware” movement was
attempted and popularized in the 1980s.)</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Mike Perham, a maintainer of Sidekiq, a popular Ruby
developer tool, also recently suggested that open source contributors use a
“dual license” to monetize their work, charging companies for access to a
permissive MIT license instead of a more restrictive AGPL license that would
require attribution. His theory is that by making AGPL the default license,
“businesses will pay to avoid it.”</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>To support
this idea, Perham reminded his audience:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:20.6pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Remember: Open Source != Free Software. The source may be
viewable on GitHub but that doesn’t mean anyone can use it for any purpose.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;color:black'>131</span></sup><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'> There’s no reason you can’t make your source code accessible
but also charge to use it. As long as you are the owner of the code, you have
the right to license it however you want.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:3.2pt;
margin-bottom:.15pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:108%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:108%;font-family:
"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>…[The] reality is most smaller OSS
projects have a single person </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>130 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 57632"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:375.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://fair.io/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>131 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 57633"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>It is worth noting that Mike is correct
about code hosted on GitHub with no specified license, but an open source
license that meets the OSI’s definition must include freedom to redistribute.
This quote highlights how the modern definition of “open source” is blurring,
with colloquial use becoming distinct from historical definition.</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection31>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=562 style='width:421.45pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:16.75pt'>
<td width=479 valign=top style='width:359.4pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:16.75pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.05pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>doing 95% of the work. If this is true, be grateful for unpaid
</span></i></p>
</td>
<td width=83 valign=top style='width:62.05pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:16.75pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:49.1pt'>
<td width=479 valign=top style='width:359.4pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:49.1pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>help but don’t feel guilty
about keeping 100% of the income.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'>132</span></sup></p>
</td>
<td width=83 valign=top style='width:62.05pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:49.1pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>132 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://www.mikeperham.
com/2015/11/23/how-tocharge-for-your-opensource/</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:62.85pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=13 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image020.gif" align=left hspace=12>Charging
businesses provides another option for developers to support their work,
particularly if it is one or two maintainers supporting an active project.
However, not every project could successfully charge for its work, especially
older projects, or infrastructure projects that look more like public goods
than consumer products, such as programming languages.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:69.35pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>While paid licensing could work for certain product
scenarios, this model is also arguably at odds with the enormous social value
that open source has provided, which suggests that when software is free,
innovation follows. The goal should not be to move back towards a closed
software society, where progress and creativity are constrained, but to
sustainably support a public ecosystem in which software can be freely created
and distributed.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection32>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.55pt;margin-bottom:
12.4pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>Finding a sponsor or donor for an infrastructure project</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:58.75pt;margin-bottom:
11.6pt;margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>The other option for supporting
infrastructure projects is to find sponsorships or donations. This practice is
especially common in the following situations:</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=516
style='width:387.0pt;margin-left:1.1pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:35.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:35.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:32.4pt;
margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center;
text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%'>There is no paid client demand</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> for services associated with the
project</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:39.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:39.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:14.8pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.9pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.35pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Charging directly
for access would prevent adoption</span></i></b><i><span style='font-size:
11.0pt;line-height:107%'> (one could not charge to use Python as a
programming language, for example, because nobody would use it; it would be
like charging people to speak English)</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:22.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:22.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.95pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>There isn’t enough capacity</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> to manage paid work, or no desire
on the developer’s part to deal with business matters</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:52.25pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 5.75pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:52.25pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:23.25pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.9pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.05pt;line-height:
107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Neutrality and
non-commercialization</span></i></b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%'> are perceived to be important for governance purposes</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:97.2pt;margin-bottom:
25.45pt;margin-left:.95pt'>In this situation, a project maintainer will look
for benefactors who believe in the value of their work and are willing to
financially support them. There are two major sources of funding at the moment:
software companies and other developers.</p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Crowdfunding</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:82.55pt;margin-bottom:
24.15pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Some development work gets funded through
crowdfunding campaigns, such as Kickstarter or Indiegogo. Bountysource, the
aforementioned open source bounty website, also has a platform called Salt,
dedicated to crowdfunding open source projects.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:82.7pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Andrew Godwin, a London-based Django core developer,
successfully raised £17,952 (roughly $25,000) from 507 backers on Kickstarter
to fund database work for Django. The project was fully funded in less than
four hours.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:126.0pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>Of his
decision to raise funds for an open source project, Godwin wrote:</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=578 style='width:433.5pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:56.75pt'>
<td width=481 valign=top style='width:360.65pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:56.75pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:33.3pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.9pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.9pt;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>The idea here is twofold—to guarantee the project a solid
period of work and at least 80 or so hours of coding time, as well as to try
and show the world that open source software </span></i></p>
</td>
<td width=97 valign=top style='width:72.85pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:56.75pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:49.1pt'>
<td width=481 valign=top style='width:360.65pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:49.1pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:1.15pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>really can pay for developers' time.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>133</span></sup></p>
</td>
<td width=97 valign=top style='width:72.85pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:49.1pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>133 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://www.kickstarter.com/
projects/andrewgodwin/ schema-migrations-for-django/description</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:90.45pt;margin-bottom:
120.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><img width=14
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left hspace=12><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>A lot of open source code gets done for free. However, my free
time is limited. I currently have a day a week available for work, and I'd love
to spend it improving Django rather than doing consulting or contracting.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.1pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Similarly to bounties, crowdfunding can be useful for
funding new features or development work with a clear, tangible outcome.
Crowdfunding can also help reduce perverse incentives from bounties, since
campaigns take a bit more time and effort than posting a bounty, and tend to
get funded based on public trust in the campaign owner’s ability to deliver. In
this case, Godwin had been a core contributor to Django for six years and was
well-known in the community.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:74.0pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>However, crowdfunding still does not address the need
for funding related to ongoing operations and overhead. It is also not a
recurring source of capital, and there is a mental and time cost associated
with planning and executing a crowdfunding campaign each time. Finally, backers
of these projects tend to be fellow developers, or small company
contributions—there are only so many times a campaign owner can tap the same
source of capital to fund their projects.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>Godwin himself
later wrote of the experience:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.6pt;margin-bottom:
20.6pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>I don't think [crowdfunding] meshes entirely well with general
open source development; not only is it just a one-time payment, but the idea
of rewards often doesn't match well and it requires something you can entirely
bound and describe up front.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:88.7pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Just relying on people's good will [sic] isn't going to work,
and we'll end up disproportionately appealing to independent </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>developers or developers on a personal level and that's not as </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:128%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'> </span><i><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>sustainable
I don't think.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;
color:black'>134 </span></sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:128%'>134</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 57431"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:15.9pt;
margin-left:397.5pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://github.com/pybee/
paying-the-piper/issues/3</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Aside from crowdfunding campaigns, several platforms
have also emerged to encourage the practice of “tipping” open source
contributors: that is, pledging small amounts of recurring revenue to a
contributor as a sign of support for his or her work. Two popular platforms are
Patreon (which does not exclusively focus on open source contributors) and
Gratipay (which tends to attract a more technical community).</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:90.35pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The idea of recurring revenue is appealing, but
suffers some of the same problems as crowdfunding. Namely, most patrons are
developers themselves, with limited amounts of capital to pledge to each other.
Donations are widely considered to be helpful as “beer money,” </p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection33>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.85pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>but not “rent money.” Gratipay has 122 teams on its platform
who collectively receive $1,000 per week, meaning that the average project
receives less than $40 per month.<sup>135</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Even very large projects such as
OpenSSL only generated $2,000 in annual donations prior to Heartbleed. As
mentioned before, after Heartbleed, team member Steve Marquess noted the
“outpouring of grassroots support from the OpenSSL community”: the first round
of donations came out to roughly 200 donors for a total of $9,000. </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:8.25pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.6pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:
inter-ideograph;text-indent:14.25pt;line-height:132%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:132%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:132%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>indefinitely (they won’t),
and even though every penny of those </span></i>Marquess thanked the community
for its support, but also noted: <i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:
132%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>Even if those donations
continue to arrive at the same rate </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:22.55pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>funds goes directly to OpenSSL team members, it is nowhere near
enough to properly sustain the manpower levels needed to support such a complex
and critical software product. While OpenSSL does ‘belong to the people’ it is
neither realistic nor appropriate to expect that a few hundred, or even a few
thousand, individuals provide all the financial support. The ones who should be
contributing real resources are the commercial companies and governments who
use OpenSSL extensively and take it for granted.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;color:black'>136</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.05pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>(To Marquess’s point, subsequent corporate donations were
larger, as companies had more to give than individuals. The biggest donation
came from Chinese smartphone maker Smartisan, to the tune of $160,000.<sup>137</sup>
Smartisan has continued to make substantial donations to OpenSSL.<sup>138</sup>)
</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Finally, the reality is that there are too many projects,
all valuable or critical in some way, and not enough donors, for the technical </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>135</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 58662"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:351.9pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>As of November 2015. https:// gratipay.com/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>136 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 58652"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:55.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://veridicalsystems.com/ blog/of-money-responsibility-and-pride/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>137 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=13 height=1 id="Group 58657"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image022.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:11.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://blogs.wsj.com/
cio/2014/08/20/opensslseeing-more-support-postheartbleed/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>138 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 58661"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Email interview with Steve Marquess</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection34>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:85.75pt;margin-bottom:
27.95pt;margin-left:.95pt'>community—companies or individuals—to be able to
lend mindshare and donate significantly to all of them.</p>
<h2 style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:152.1pt;margin-bottom:2.45pt;margin-left:
2.35pt'>Corporate sponsorship of infrastructure projects</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:100.1pt;margin-bottom:
31.5pt;margin-left:.95pt;line-height:116%'>On a larger scale, in some
instances, a project’s value becomes so widely regarded that a company will
hire a contributor to work on the project full-time.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=611 style='width:457.95pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:397.45pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:396.25pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:397.45pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:22.15pt;margin-bottom:
22.3pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-indent:-.05pt;line-height:140%'>websites.<sup>139</sup>
He built and released jQuery as a side project in 2006. John joined Mozilla
in 2007 as a developer evangelist, specifically focusing on JavaScript
libraries.<sup>140</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:35.4pt;margin-bottom:
7.7pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:136%'>As jQuery
continued to grow in popularity, it became apparent that, in addition to
further technical development, it needed to formalize some of its governance
aspects. Mozilla suggested that John work on jQuery full-time from 2009 to
2011, which he did.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:48.25pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.45pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:
inter-ideograph;text-indent:14.3pt;line-height:107%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>work on jQuery full-time.
This has resulted in 9 releases of </span></i>Of the experience, John wrote:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:23.7pt;
margin-left:35.65pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Over the past year and a half Mozilla gave me the ability to </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:29.05pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:36.65pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>jQuery...and a drastically improved jQuery organization (we’re
now under the Software Freedom Conservancy non-profit, hold frequent team
meetings, public votes, provide public status updates, and actively encourage
participation). Thankfully the jQuery project is running quite smoothly these
days, allowing me to scale back my involvement to a more-reasonable amount of
time and take on other development work.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%'>141</span></sup></p>
</td>
<td width=82 valign=top style='width:61.7pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:397.45pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:218%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:218%'>139 </span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:
218%;color:black'>http://libscore.com/#libs</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>140 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:309.7pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://ejohn.org/blog/ mozilla/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>141 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.6pt;margin-bottom:
2.4pt;margin-left:.95pt'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=672 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=12 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image016.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left
hspace=12><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"
align=left hspace=12>John Resig is the author of jQuery, a JavaScript
programming library that is used by nearly two-thirds of the top million
most-trafficked </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:2.55pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:396.7pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://ejohn.org/blog/nextsteps-in-2011/</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection35>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>After using his time at Mozilla to get jQuery the
organizational support it needed, John announced he would join Khan Academy to
focus on new projects outside of jQuery.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Cory Benfield, a Python developer, has
a similar story. Cory contributed to open source projects in his spare time,
eventually becoming a core developer for a critical Python library called
Requests. </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:1.3pt;text-indent:14.25pt;line-height:128%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>infrastructure’ for Python
developers, and yet before I came on </span></i>Benfield notes:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:21.1pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>This library is up there with Django in terms of being ‘critical
</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:23.8pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>to [sic] the project was essentially maintained by a single
individual.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%'>142</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:21.95pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Benfield estimates that he volunteered on the project
roughly 12 hours per week for nearly four years, in addition to his full-time
job.<sup>143</sup> Nobody was paid to work on Requests.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>During this time, HP hired an employee, Donald Stufft, to
focus specifically on supporting Python-related projects, since HP considers
Python to be critical to its software. (Donald is the aforementioned developer
who is paid full-time to focus on Python packaging.) Donald convinced his
manager to hire Cory to focus full-time on Python projects, where he currently
works today (now under HPE).</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Companies are well-positioned to financially support
volunteer projects that they consider to be critical to their business, and
when situations like John Resig’s or Cory Benfield’s happen, they are warmly
received. However, there are complications.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>142 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 57792"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Email interview with Cory </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:51.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Benfield</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>143 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 57795"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Email interview with Cory </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Benfield</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Firstly, no company is obligated to hire someone to work on
projects in these situations; they tend to come about by chance from a
sympathetic patron. Once an employee is hired, there is always the possibility
of losing that sponsorship, especially because the employee does not directly
contribute to the company’s bottom line. This is especially dangerous if a
project’s sustainability depends upon one contributor being employed full-time.
In the case of Requests, Cory is the only full-time contributor (there are two
other part-time contributors, Ian Cordasco and Kenneth Reitz).</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.7pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>One situation where this occurred was in the case of rvm, a
critical piece of Ruby infrastructure. Michal Papis, its primary author, was
hired by Engine Yard to support rvm’s development from 2011 to 2013. When that
sponsorship ended, however, Papis had to run a crowdfunding campaign to support
rvm’s ongoing development.<sup>144</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>It wasn’t just rvm, either. Engine Yard had employed a
number of maintainers of Ruby infrastructure projects, including JRuby, Ruby on
Rails 3, and bundler. When Engine Yard was forced to make the right business
decision for their company, which was to scale back support, all of these
projects lost full-time maintainers, nearly all at the same time.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Another concern is that a single company could have undue
influence over the project, since they are effectively the only sponsor. Cory
Benfield notes that that the contributor him or herself could also have undue
influence over the project, since they now have much more time than others to
make contributions.<sup>145</sup> In theory, that decision could be made
between a company and a maintainer, without involving the project’s larger
community.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>144 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 58513"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:231.9pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://www.bountysource.
com/teams/rvm/fundraiser</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>145 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 58514"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Email interview with Cory Benfield</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection36>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=672 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image023.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
One example where this occurred was in the case of Express.js, a critical
framework for the Node.js ecosystem. When the original author decided to move
on from the project, he transferred the assets (including the code repository
and domain name) to a company called StrongLoop, whose employees agreed to help
</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=609
style='width:457.1pt;margin-left:-.3pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:387.8pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:396.1pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:387.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:34.1pt;margin-bottom:
19.65pt;margin-left:.3pt;text-indent:.15pt;line-height:138%'>maintain the
project.<sup>146</sup> However, StrongLoop didn’t provide the support that
the community expected, and because StrongLoop alone had administrative
access, it became difficult for the community to contribute. Doug Wilson, a
lead maintainer on the project who is unaffiliated with StrongLoop, still had
commit access and continued to manage the project’s workload, struggling to
handle the project’s needs by himself.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.35pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>Following
StrongLoop’s acquisition by IBM, Doug declared that </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;
text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:14.6pt;line-height:107%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>like @Fishrock123 working
to create...documentation. Then all </span></i>StrongLoop had effectively
killed the contributor community:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:23.7pt;
margin-left:35.5pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>At the time of the StrongLoop move, we had active members </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:8.05pt;
margin-bottom:3.75pt;margin-left:0cm;text-align:center;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>there was was me as a
single person doing this in my free time </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:32.2pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:35.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.4pt;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>with mounting support requests….all this time I've been
killing myself, I have been committing under the StrongLoop name. No matter
what happens, I will not ever commit again to any repository under
StrongLoop's name.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:
107%'>147</span></sup></p>
</td>
<td width=81 valign=top style='width:61.0pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:387.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>146 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:292.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://strongloop.com/
strongblog/tj-holowaychuk-sponsorship-of-express/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>147 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://github.com/
strongloop/express/ issues/2844#issuecomment-172414097</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Ultimately, the Express.js project was moved out of
StrongLoop’s administration and into the Node.js Foundation, which helps
steward projects that are part of the Node.js technology ecosystem.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>For very large and well-known open source projects, however,
hiring developers is not an unusual practice. The Linux Foundation reported,
for example, that more than 80 percent of Linux kernel </p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=626
style='width:469.6pt;margin-left:-1.2pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:57.55pt'>
<td width=529 valign=bottom style='width:397.0pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:57.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:6.1pt;
margin-left:1.45pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>development is done by
developers who are paid for their work.<sup>148</sup> </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:23.35pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:1.5pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-1.5pt;line-height:
107%'>The Linux Foundation also hires paid Fellows to work on infrastructure
projects full time, including Greg Kroah-Hartman, a Linux kernel </p>
</td>
<td width=97 valign=top style='width:72.6pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:57.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>148 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://www.linuxfoundation.
org/news-media/announcements/2015/02/linux-foundation-releases-linux-development-report</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:34.15pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=672 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
developer, and Linus Torvalds himself, the creator of the Linux kernel.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection37>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:177.1pt;margin-bottom:
12.4pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>Why is it so hard to fund these projects?</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Today, infrastructure work is being cobbled together
by freelance developers or those with “day jobs,” doing unrelated paid client
work for part of the month and working on open source projects in their spare
time. While this is a viable way to pay for one’s lifestyle, it does not
adequately reflect the social value that these projects deserve.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.9pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Stunningly, although everybody agrees there is a
problem (whether defined as “volunteer burnout”, community mismanagement or a
greater lack of funding), the conversation has not progressed beyond meager,
short-term solutions such as tipping or crowdfunding.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.5pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Talk to developers who found a way to pay themselves,
and you’ll hear the word “lucky” thrown around: lucky to have been hired by a
company, lucky to have gotten publicity and donations, lucky to have stumbled
upon a business model, lucky to not have a family or mortgage to worry about.
Everybody is getting lucky. Luck lasts for a couple of months, maybe a year or
two, and then it runs out.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Why is it so hard to fund digital infrastructure?</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.2pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Fundamentally, digital infrastructure has a free
rider problem. Resources are offered for free, and everybody (whether
individual developer or large software company) uses them, so nobody is
incentivized to contribute back, figuring that somebody else will step in. Left
unchecked, this will lead to a tragedy of the commons.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:96.15pt;margin-bottom:
11.6pt;margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>In addition to the macroeconomic
challenge of the commons, there are several reasons why supporting digital
infrastructure is particularly complicated. Although they have been touched
upon throughout this report, they are summarized here:</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=516
style='width:387.0pt;margin-left:1.7pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:154.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 24.6pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:154.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.75pt;
margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center;
text-indent:0cm;line-height:126%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:126%'>There is a misperception that this is a “solved problem.” </span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:126%'>The pervasive belief, even among
stakeholders such as software companies, that open </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.0pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.75pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>source is well-funded, makes it harder
to generate support. Some infrastructure projects operate sustainably, either
because they have a working business model or sponsorship, or because their
required upkeep is limited. An unfamiliar audience will also associate open
source with enterprise companies like Red Hat or Docker and assume the
problem has been solved. However, these situations are the outliers, not the
rule.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 24.6pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:107.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 24.6pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:107.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.95pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>There is a lack of cultural
understanding and awareness about the problem.</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> Outside of the open source
community, nearly everybody remains unaware of infrastructure’s funding
issues, and the topic is perceived to be dry and technical. Developers
needing support tend to have a highly technical focus and aren’t comfortable
advocating for the business side of their work. Taken together, there is no
momentum to change a broken situation.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 24.6pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:107.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 24.6pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:107.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Digital infrastructure is rooted in
open source, whose volunteer culture discourages talk of money. </span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Although this attitude has made
open source what it is today, it also makes it difficult for developers to
openly discuss their needs without feeling guilty or worrying about not being
perceived as a team player. Open source’s highly distributed and democratic
nature also makes it difficult to coordinate and sustain institutional actors
who could act as advocates for their needs.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 24.6pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:69.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 24.6pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:69.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:14.15pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:
inter-ideograph;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Digital infrastructure is highly
distributed, compared to physical infrastructure. </span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Unlike planning the construction of
a bridge, it’s not always clear which projects are useful until after they
have already taken off. </span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:90.8pt;margin-bottom:
50.8pt;margin-left:38.2pt;text-indent:-1.2pt;line-height:126%;background:#FEEAE1'><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:126%'>They cannot be planned beforehand by
a centralized entity. At the other end of the lifecycle, some projects are
meant to decline as other, better solutions take their place. Digital
infrastructure is distributed across hundreds of projects, large and small,
built by individuals, groups and companies; it would be a behemoth task to
catalog them all.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:90.2pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><img width=59
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>It's hard to find funding...for the average developer (me) some
of them are totally out of reach. [Kickstarter] only works if you either go
viral or hire someone to do all of the marketing/ design/promotions….Turning a
project into a business is great too, but...these are all things that take away
from development </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>(which is the part I like to focus on). If I wanted to get a
grant, I </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:128%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'> </span><i><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>wouldn't
even know where to start.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:128%'>149 </span></sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:128%'>149</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:128%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 59443"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:128%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:15.9pt;
margin-left:398.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://github.com/pybee/
paying-the-piper/issues/53</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:31.0pt;text-indent:-.3pt;line-height:107%'><i>- Kyle Kemp,
freelance developer and open source contributor</i></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection38>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.55pt;margin-bottom:
12.4pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>Institutional efforts to support digital infrastructure</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:94.9pt;margin-bottom:
25.45pt;margin-left:.95pt'>There are some institutional efforts to collectively
organize and help support open source projects. Some are independent software
foundations; other sources of support come from software companies themselves.</p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Administrative support and fiscal sponsorship</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Several foundations provide organizational support,
such as fiscal sponsorship, to open source projects: in other words, taking
care of the non-coding tasks that many developers would prefer not to do.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=627 style='width:470.45pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:274.35pt'>
<td width=529 valign=top style='width:397.0pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:274.35pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:18.75pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:1.3pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:142%'>serves
roughly 55% of all websites worldwide.<sup>150</sup> Since then, it has
become a home for over 350 open source projects.<sup>151</sup> Apache
structures itself as a decentralized community of developers, with no
full-time employees and nearly 3,000 volunteers. It offers several services
to projects, mostly around organizational, legal, and development support. As
of 2011, Apache had an annual budget of over </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:26.9pt;
margin-left:.7pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>$500,000, most of which
comes from grants and contributions.<sup>152</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:25.75pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:1.2pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-1.2pt;line-height:
107%'>The Software Freedom Conservancy, established in 2006, also provides
nonprofit administration services for over 30 free and open source projects.
Projects supported by the Software Freedom Conservancy include Git, the
aforementioned version control system upon which GitHub built its platform,
and Twisted, the aforementioned Python library.<sup>153</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=98 valign=top style='width:73.45pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:274.35pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>150 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://w3techs.com/
technologies/overview/ web_server/all</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>151 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:44.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://www.apache.org/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>152 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Apache_Software_Foundation </span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:
107%'>153 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:60.35pt;margin-bottom:
267.95pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=14 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=12
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image016.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=13 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image020.gif" align=left
hspace=12><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"
align=left hspace=12>The Apache Software Foundation, incorporated in 1999, was
created partially to support development of the Apache HTTP Server, which </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:397.5pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://sfconservancy.org/ members/current/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.0pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Other examples of foundations who provide
organizational support include The Eclipse Foundation and Software in the
Public Interest. The Linux Foundation and Mozilla Foundation also support
external open source projects in various ways (discussed later in this
section), though that is not the primary purpose of their mission.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:97.6pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>It is important to note that these foundations
provide legal and administrative, but rarely financial, support. Therefore,
sponsorship by Apache or the Software Freedom Conservancy alone does not fund a
project in itself; the foundations only help make it easier to process
donations and manage the project.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.7pt;margin-bottom:
25.4pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Another important observation is that these
initiatives support free and open source software from a philosophical
perspective, but do not focus on infrastructure specifically. For example,
OpenTripPlanner, a project supported by the Software Freedom Conservancy, is
trip planner software; although the code that powers it is open source, it is a
consumer application, not infrastructure.</p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Creating a foundation to support a project</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:73.35pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Some projects are large enough to be managed through
their own foundations. Python, Node.js, Django, and jQuery all have
complementary foundations.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.4pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>There are two important aspects to getting a
foundation off the ground: qualifying for tax-exempt status and finding
funding.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.7pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Qualifying as a 501(c)(3) can be
challenging for these projects, due to the lack of awareness about open source
technology and tendency to see open source as a non-charitable activity. In
2013, a controversy revealed that the IRS had internally identified a list of groups
applying for tax-exempt status that would require further </p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection39>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>scrutiny; “open source” was one of these.<sup>154 155</sup>
Unfortunately, these constraints make it difficult for projects to
institutionalize.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>For instance, Russell Keith-Magee, who until recently was
president of the Django Software Foundation, explained that the foundation
cannot directly “fund” software development of Django, without the risk of
losing its 501(c)(3) status. Instead, they “support” its development through
community activities.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>In June 2014, the Yorba Foundation,
which made Linux productivity software, was denied 501(c)(3) status, after
waiting nearly four and a half years for the decision. Jim Nelson, its
executive director, was particularly alarmed by the IRS’s reasoning: because
their software could be used by commercial entities, Yorba’s work could not be </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>considered charitable. A letter from the IRS explained:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:69.25pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Mere publishing under open source licenses for all to use does </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:16.35pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>not show that the poor and
underprivileged actually use the </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:23.0pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Tools.[…]You do not know who uses the Tools much less what kind
of content they create with the Tools.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:128%'>156</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Nelson pointed out the flaws in this
reasoning in a blog post, com-</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=530 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>154 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
11.9pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
IRS_targeting_controversy</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=530 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>155 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
271.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.forbes.com/sites/
kellyphillipserb/2014/07/17/
not-just-the-tea-party-irstargeted-turned-down-taxexempt-status-tied-to-opensource-software/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=530 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>156 </span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=628 style='width:471.15pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:170.55pt'>
<td width=626 valign=top style='width:469.15pt;padding:0cm .2pt 0cm 1.8pt;
height:170.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:24.2pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>paring it to
any other public good:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:98.0pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:36.1pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.05pt;line-height:
132%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:132%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>There’s a charitable organization here in San Francisco that
plants trees throughout the city for the benefit of all. If one of their
trees...cools the cafe’s patrons as they enjoy their espressos, does that
mean the tree-planting organization is no </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'> </span><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>longer a charity?</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:107%'>157 </span></sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>157</span><span style='font-size:
11.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=13 height=1 id="Group 59637"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image022.gif"></span><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:14.15pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://blogs.gnome.org/
jnelson/2014/06/30/the-new501c3-and-the-future-offree-software-in-the-unitedstates/</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://blogs.gnome.org/
jnelson/2014/06/30/the-new501c3-and-the-future-offree-software-in-the-unitedstates/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:23.0pt;
margin-left:2.75pt;text-indent:-.3pt;line-height:135%'>Projects that qualify
for 501(c)(3) status tend to mention their focus on community, as with the
Python Software Foundation, whose mission is <i>“to promote, protect, and
advance the Python programming language, and to support and facilitate the
growth of a diverse and international community of Python programmers.” </i><sup>158</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Alternatively, some projects apply to become a trade
association through a 501(c)(6) status. The jQuery Foundation is an example of
this, describing itself as a <i>“member supported non-profit trade association
for web developers.” </i><sup>159</sup><i> </i>The Linux Foundation is also a
trade association.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>The second aspect of formalizing project governance through
a foundation is finding the right source of funding. Some foundations are
supported by individual contributions, but have comparatively small budgets.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.6pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>The Django Software Foundation, for example, manages Django,
the most popular web framework written in Python, used by companies like
Instagram and Pinterest. The foundation is run by volunteers and takes in less
than $60,000 in donations per year.<sup>160</sup> Last year, they received a
one-time $150,000 grant from the Mozilla Foundation.<sup>161</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>The other common source of funding is corporate sponsors.
Corporate entities can be well-suited for funding because they use these
software projects themselves. The Linux Foundation is one of the most
successful outliers, due to the fundamental value of the Linux kernel to nearly
every corporate entity. The Linux Foundation has $30M in annually managed
capital from corporate members such as IBM, Intel, Oracle, and Samsung, and is
growing.<sup>162</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>158 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 59931"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:75.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://www.python.org/psf/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>159 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 59934"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:195.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://jquery.org/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>160 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 59937"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:3.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>As of 2013.
https://www.djangoproject.com/foundation/ reports/2013/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>161 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 59939"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:99.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://www.djangoproject.
com/weblog/2015/dec/11/ django-awarded-moss-grant/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>162 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 59940"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://collabprojects.linuxfoundation.org/sites/collabprojects/files/lf_collaborative_projects_brochure.pdf</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection40>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:83.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Creating a foundation to support a project is
sensible for very large infrastructure projects. It is less suitable for
smaller projects, due to the work, resources, and ongoing corporate sponsorship
needed to create a sustainable organization.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:95.9pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Node.js is a recent successful example of using a
foundation to support a large project. Node.js is a JavaScript framework,
developed in 2009 by Ryan Dahl and several other developers working at Joyent,
a private software company. It became extremely popular, but began to suffer
governance constraints due to Joyent’s patronage, whom some felt could not
fully represent an enthusiastic and fast-growing Node.js community.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=622 style='width:466.75pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:176.55pt'>
<td width=529 valign=top style='width:397.0pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:176.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:31.25pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:1.45pt;line-height:
107%'>under the name io.js.<sup>163</sup> In February 2015, an intent to form
a 501(c) (6) organization was announced which would remove Node.js from
Joyent’s stewardship. The Node.js and io.js communities voted to work
together under this new entity, called the Node.js Foundation. The Node.js
Foundation, structured under the advisorship of the Linux Foundation, has a number
of corporate sponsors who financially contribute to its budget, including
IBM, Microsoft, and PayPal.<sup>164</sup> These sponsors see influential
value in supporting the development of a popular software project that powers
the web, </p>
</td>
<td width=93 valign=top style='width:69.75pt;padding:.75pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:176.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>163 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:80.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://www.infoworld.com/
article/2835159/node-js/
node-js-governance-modelpushed-as-forking-talk-ensues.html</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>164 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://www.joyent.com/
blog/introducing-the-nodejs-foundation</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:90.65pt;margin-bottom:
5.6pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=14 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=14
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left hspace=12>In
2014, a group of Node.js contributors threatened to fork the project. Joyent
tried to address governance issues by forming an Advisory Board for the
project, but the project was forked anyway, </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:5.45pt;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>and they have the resources to spare.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:87.0pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Another promising example is Ruby Together, an
organization launched by several Ruby developers to support Ruby infrastructure
projects. Ruby Together is structured as a trade association, in which
corporate and individual donors pledge money to fund full-time developers to improve
core Ruby infrastructure. Donors elect a volunteer board of directors, who help
decide which projects Ruby Together should work on each month.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:97.25pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Ruby Together was conceived by,
and funds the work of, two developers: André Arko and David Radcliffe. As of
April 2016, they now fund the work of four other infrastructure maintainers.
Their monthly budget as of March 2016 was just over $18,000/month, funded
entirely by donations. Ruby Together was announced in March 2015 and is still a
new project, but could serve as a blueprint for a more community-oriented model
to fund work on other </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.5pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>software infrastructure
projects.<sup>165 </sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>165</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 59923"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:107%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.45pt;
margin-bottom:25.45pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://rubytogether.org/</span></p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Corporate programs</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:96.35pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Software companies support infrastructure projects in
various ways. As beneficiaries of infrastructure projects, they contribute back
by reporting bugs, suggesting or submitting new features, and providing other
forms of feedback. Some companies encourage their employees to contribute to
critical projects on company time. Many employees have significant contributor
roles for external open source projects. For some employees, open source work
is an explicit part of their job. Dedicating salaried time is one of the most
important ways that companies contribute to open source.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:96.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Large companies like Google or Facebook are eagerly
embracing open source as way to build trust and influence, because they are the
only institutional actors large enough to absorb its costs without needing a
financial return on investment. Open source projects help strengthen a
company’s influence, whether by releasing their own open source projects or
hiring key developers to work on an open source project full-time.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>These practices are not limited to pure
software companies, either. </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Walmart, for example, is a major supporter
of open source, investing </p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection41>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.7pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>over $2M in an open source project called hapi.<sup>166</sup>
Eran Hammer, a senior developer at Walmart Labs, was quick to explain that <i>“open
source ain’t charity”</i> and that <i>“the size of the company using [hapi]
translated to ‘free’ engineering resources.” </i><sup>167</sup> Dion Almaer,
the former VP of engineering at Walmart Labs, noted that their commitment to
open source helped with recruiting, building a strong company culture, and “a
slew of areas of leverage.”<sup>168</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>In terms of direct support for maintainers, sometimes
companies hire a maintainer to work on full-time on an open source project.
Companies also occasionally donate to project crowdfunding campaigns. For
example, a recent Kickstarter campaign to fund core work on Django raised
£32,650 (roughly $50,000); Tom Christie, the campaign organizer, reported that
80% of total financing came from businesses.<sup>169</sup> However, these
efforts are still ad hoc, and digital infrastructure as a CSR (corporate social
responsibility) issue is not yet common among for-profit software companies.
There is room for advocacy here.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>One of the best-known corporate
programs is Google’s Summer of Code (GSoC), mentioned earlier in this paper,
which provides stipends to university students to work on open source projects
for a summer. Students are paired with mentors to help familiarize them with
the project. Summer of Code is maintained by the Open Source </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:7.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Programs Office at Google, and has funded
thousands of students.<sup>170 </sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'><sup>171</sup> GSoC’s goal is to give
students an opportunity to write code for </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>166 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
7.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.infoworld.com/
article/2608897/opensource-software/walmart-sinvestment-in-open-sourceisn-t-cheap.html</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=13 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image020.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>167 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://hueniverse.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:15.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>com/2014/08/15/opensource-aint-charity/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>168 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
119.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://todogroup.org/blog/
why-we-run-an-open-sourceprogram-walmart-labs/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>169 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
167.9pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://github.com/pybee/
paying-the-piper/issues/50</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=13 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image020.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>170 </span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=628 style='width:470.95pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:31.8pt'>
<td width=98 valign=top style='width:73.45pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 5.75pt;
height:31.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:65.45pt;
margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:right;
text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:
107%'>171 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:393.0pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
11.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=12 height=1 id="Group 61205"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image019.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:-1.2pt;
margin-bottom:.1pt;margin-left:0cm;text-align:right;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:6.2pt;
margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:right;
text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:
107%;color:black'>Google_Summer_of_Code</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://developers.google.
com/open-source/gsoc/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>open source projects; it is not focused on funding those
projects themselves.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Last year, Stripe, a payments processing
company, announced an </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:3.85pt;text-indent:-3.1pt'>“Open-Source Retreat,” offering stipends
of up to $7,500 per month for a three month retreat at Stripe’s offices.<sup>172</sup>
They initially intended to offer just two grants, but after receiving 120
applications, they expanded the program to four grantees.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>The grantees
were enthusiastic about the experience. One of the grantees, Andrey Petrov,
continues to maintain the aforementioned Python library called urllib3, now
used by every Python developer. Of the experience, Andrey wrote,</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:20.6pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Publishing and contributing to open source is going to continue
happening regardless whether I’m getting paid for it or not, but it will be
slow and unfocused. Which is fine, it’s how open source work has always worked.
But it doesn’t need to be this way. [...]</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:20.75pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>If you’re a tech company, please allocate a budget for open
source grants and sponsorships. Distribute it on Gittip</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%'>173</span></sup><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'> if you wish, or do what Stripe did and fund aggressive sprints
towards some high-impact milestones.</span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:23.3pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Consider this a formal call for sponsorship: <b>Please help fund
urllib3 development.</b></span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:128%'>174</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Stripe’s Open-Source Retreat can serve as a model for what a
CSR program could look like. Stripe decided to offer the program for a second
year in 2015. Despite the popularity of their program and its </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>172 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=13 height=1 id="Group 60807"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image022.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:287.9pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://stripe.com/blog/
stripe-open-source-retreat</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>173 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=13 height=1 id="Group 60808"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image022.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:7.2pt;margin-bottom:47.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Gittip is now called Gratipay. The product
has been modified somewhat since the original publication of Andrey’s post.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>174 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=13 height=1 id="Group 60809"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image022.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://stripe.com/blog/
stripe-open-source-retreat</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>warm reception by developers, this practice is still not
common among other companies.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Corporate interest in open source is
growing rapidly, and nobody can predict exactly what it might mean in the long
term. Companies could address the long term support gap by directing human
resources and money towards open source projects. There could be formal
fellowship programs to connect companies with open source maintainers needing
full-time support. Whereas a project’s contributors used to be a mix of
developers from different places, perhaps they will now be filled by a group of
employees from a single company. Digital infrastructure might come to exist in
a series of </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:3.95pt;text-indent:-3.2pt'>“walled gardens,” each well-supported
and technically open, but effectively championed by one company and its
employees, by virtue of that company’s limitless resources.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12>Taken to its
extreme, however, this scenario doesn’t bode well for innovation. Jeff Lindsay,
a software architect who helped build the platform team for Twilio, a highly
successful cloud communications company, mused in a podcast last year:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:8.95pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Twilio is incentivized to make Twilio better, Amazon is
incentivized to make Amazon better. But who’s incentivized to make them all
work together better, and allow you to do more things with them together?
There’s nobody that’s really incentivized to do that.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%'>175</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:1.75pt;text-indent:15.5pt;line-height:128%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>in a world where Google is a
city-state, and Apple is a city-state, </span></i>Timothy Fitz, a systems
engineer, further explained:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:.2pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>Bruce Schneier described this sort of thing as serfdom. So,
we’re </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>175 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=13 height=1 id="Group 60605"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image022.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Systems Live, Episode 51: Megalith
http://systemslive. org/ </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.7pt;margin-bottom:22.8pt;
margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:128%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:128%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>and...if I just continue to use Google products, and I stay
within their walls, I get this great benefit. [But] living in a mixed world is
almost impossible, and very painful, and everything has bugs, and no one of
these companies really wants to support you. And so we’re in this weird world
where, and if you look at a city-state world, one of the big problems was
interstate commerce, if you have a tariff because you’re trying to export
something from Austin and sell it to Dallas, that is not a good economy. You’re
going to suffer from a lack of innovation and a lack of idea sharing. And
that’s where we are right now.</span></i><sup><span style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:128%'>176 177</span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Although the “serfdom” argument mostly refers to a company’s
products, such as an iPhone versus an Android, it could also hold true for
sponsored open source projects. The first improvements to be prioritized will
be those that directly benefit a developer’s employer. This observation is not
malicious or conspiratorial, but merely a constraint of being paid by a company
to work on a project that is not directly their business.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:25.4pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>But nobody can control the origin of a successful open
source project, whether Google, the Linux Foundation, or an independent group
of developers. New and valuable projects can come from anywhere, and when they
provide a valuable service to other developers, they become popular. This is a
good thing and fosters innovation.</p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Dedicated foundation support</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Two foundations recently stepped forward to focus more
specifically on supporting digital infrastructure: the Linux Foundation and the
Mozilla Foundation.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>176 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=13 height=1 id="Group 60888"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image022.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:163%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:163%;color:black'>Systems Live, Episode 51: Megalith
http://systemslive.org/ </span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:163%'>177
</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=13 height=1 id="Group 60889"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image022.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.wired. com/2012/11/feudal-security/</span><br
clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=631 style='width:473.15pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:112.35pt'>
<td width=467 valign=top style='width:350.15pt;padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm .9pt;
height:112.35pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:95.95pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.35pt;line-height:107%'>Following
Heartbleed, the Linux Foundation announced the formation of the Core
Infrastructure Initiative (CII) in order to prevent a similar situation from
happening again. Jim Zemlin, the executive director of the Linux Foundation,
gathered nearly $4 million in pledges from thirteen corporate donors,
including Amazon Web Services, IBM, and Microsoft, to support
security-related infrastruc-</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:1.75pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>ture projects over the next three years.<sup>178</sup> They
are also building government support, including support from the White House.<sup>179</sup>
</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>The CII is officially a project of the Linux Foundation.
Since its formation in April 2014, the CII has sponsored development work on a
number of projects, including OpenSSL, NTP, GnuPG (a communication encryption
system), and OpenSSH (a set of security-related protocols). The CII primarily
focuses on security-related projects as a subset of infrastructure.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.75pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>In October 2015, Mitchell Baker, chair of the Mozilla
Foundation, announced the Mozilla Open Source Support Program (MOSS), pledging
$1M to support free and open source software. According to Baker, the program
will consist of a “give back” element for projects that Mozilla relies upon,
and a “give forward” element to support free and open source projects at large.
However, the first set of grants focused exclusively on the former. Mozilla
identified nine projects for its initial set of grants, crowdsourcing
suggestions from the community.<sup>180</sup> They have also expressed interest
in funding security audits of critical open source projects.<sup>181</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Finally, some foundations have made ad hoc contributions to
software-related projects. For example, the Python Software Foundation makes
small grants to organizations and individuals, mostly related to outreach and
education.<sup>182</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=13 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image020.gif"></td>
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<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>178 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
7.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.cnet.com/news/
tech-titans-join-forces-tostop-the-next-heartbleed/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=11 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image009.gif"></td>
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<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>179</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
231.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.linuxfoundation.
org/news-media/blogs/
browse/2016/02/linux-foundation-s-core-infrastructure-initiative-working-white</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
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<br clear=ALL>
<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>180 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
7.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://blog.mozilla.org/
blog/2015/10/23/mozilla-launches-open-source-support-program/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=12 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image016.gif"></td>
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<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>181 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://wiki.mozilla.org/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:31.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>MOSS/Secure_Open_Source</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=532 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=13 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image020.gif"></td>
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<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>182 </span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection42>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:397.5pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://www.python.org/psf/
records/board/resolutions/</span></p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Other institutional actors</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:67.6pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>There are several remaining actors
who lend support to digital infrastructure in various ways: GitHub, venture
capital, and academia.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection43>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:.5pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>If Facebook is a “social utility”<sup>183</sup> and Google
is a “search utility”— both de facto governing bodies in their respective
fields—then GitHub stands a chance to become the “open source utility.” Its
business model likely precludes it from ever becoming a similar </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>financial juggernaut (Facebook and Google both benefit
greatly from advertising models, whereas GitHub monetizes by hosting code for
enterprise clients, as well as charging individuals to host code privately),
but GitHub is still the place where today’s open source is made and managed.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>GitHub hinted at greater aspirations when it took $350M in
venture capital, despite already being profitable. If GitHub fully embraces its
role as a steward of open source, it could have enormous influence on how those
projects get supported. For example, it could create better tools to manage
open source projects, advocate for certain types of licensing, or help project
maintainers effectively manage their communities.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>GitHub has faced mounting pressure from project maintainers
on these topics, including a “Dear GitHub” open letter written and signed by
maintainers, many from the JavaScript community. The letter explained, <i>“Many
of us are frustrated. Those of us who run some of the most popular projects on
GitHub feel completely ignored by you.”</i> It included a list of requests for
product improvements that could help them manage their projects more
efficiently.<sup>184</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
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<td width=529 height=0></td>
</tr>
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<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
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<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>183 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://techcrunch.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:439.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>com/2013/09/18/facebookdoesnt-want-to-be-cool/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
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<td width=529 height=0></td>
</tr>
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<td></td>
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<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>184 </span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection44>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:396.7pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://github.com/deargithub/dear-github</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.7pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>GitHub itself is struggling with
growing pains that have been well-documented in the media. Early on, the
company became famous for its flat hierarchy, with no managers or top-down
assignments. GitHub employees were given freedom to work on projects of </p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection45>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>their own choosing.<sup>185</sup> In recent years, as GitHub
has grown to nearly 500 employees, the company has shifted its focus to the
enterprise side of its business, hiring sales teams and enterprise executives
and adopting a more traditional work hierarchy. The transition from a
decentralized to more centralized culture has been difficult for GitHub: at
least 10 executives left within a few months spanning the winter of 2015-2016,
including the VP engineering, CFO, strategy VP, and human resources VP.<sup>186</sup>
Given these internal conflicts, GitHub has yet to publicly signal that it will
take an advocacy role and provide leadership around open source’s more pressing
infrastructure issues, but the potential is there.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Venture capital, as discussed, has a personal stake in the
future of digital infrastructure. Because developer tools help technology
companies build faster and smarter, the better the tools, the better the
startups, and the more venture capital thrives. However, “infrastructure,” from
a venture capitalist’s mindset, is not limited to open source but rather
focused on platforms that help other people create. Therefore, investments in
GitHub or npm, which are platforms that help distribute open source code, make
sense, but so do investments like Slack, a workplace collaboration platform
which developers can use to create other “command”-driven apps. (To this point,
venture capitalists formed a $80M “Slack fund” to support developer projects
that use Slack.<sup>187</sup>) Even if venture capitalists appreciate the
underlying mechanics of infrastructure, they are </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
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<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>185 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
87.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.fastcompany.
com/3020181/open-company/inside-githubs-superlean-management-strategyand-how-it-drives-innovation</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
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<td width=529 height=0></td>
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<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>186 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
279.95pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.businessinsider.
com/github-the-full-insidestory-2016-2</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
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<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>187 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://fortune.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>com/2015/12/15/slack-appinvestment-fund/</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection46>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>limited by their asset class: a VC
could not make investments into a project that didn’t have a business model.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Finally, academic institutions have played a prominent
historic role in supporting digital infrastructure, especially the development
of new projects. For example, LLVM, a compiler project for C and C++ languages,
started as a research project at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign. It is now used in Apple’s Mac OS X and iOS development tools,
as well as Sony’s PS4 development kit.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>In another example, R, a popular programming language for
statistical computing and data analysis, was initially written by Robert </p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection47>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:1.5pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Gentleman and Ross Ihaka at the University of Auckland.<sup>188</sup>
R is used not just by software companies like Facebook or Google, but also by </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:22.9pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Bank of America, the Food and Drug Administration, and the
National Weather Service, among others.<sup>189</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Some universities also employ
maintainers, who then have the freedom to work on open source projects. For
example, Network </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Time Protocol, used to synchronize
time on the Web, was first developed by David Mills, now an emeritus professor
at the University of Delaware. (The project continues to be maintained by a
group of volunteers, led by Harlan Stenn.) Bash, the aforementioned develop-</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>er tool, is currently maintained by Chet Ramey, who is
employed by the Information Technology Services division of Case Western
University.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Academic institutions have the potential to play an
important role in supporting newer projects, due to their endowment model and
mission alignment, but they can also lack the speed necessary to appeal to
modern open source developers. NumFOCUS is an example of a 501(c)(3) foundation
that supports open source scientific software through fiscal sponsorship and
donations.<sup>190</sup> An external foundation model could help provide the
support that </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
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<td width=529 height=0></td>
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<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
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<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>188 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
31.9pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://www.r-project.org/
contributors.html</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
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<td width=529 height=0></td>
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<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
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<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>189 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
307.9pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.revolutionanalytics.com/companies-using-r</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:3.45pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
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<td width=529 height=0></td>
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<td></td>
<td><img width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif"></td>
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<span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>190 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:4.75pt;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:
.15pt;margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.numfocus.org/
open-source-projects.html</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection48>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=586 style='width:439.65pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:31.8pt'>
<td width=527 style='width:395.55pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;height:31.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'>order to facilitate an open and sustainable ecosystem.<sup>191</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=59 valign=top style='width:44.05pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:31.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>191 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://msdse.org/
themes/#tools</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:63.1pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:36.4pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'><img width=12 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image016.gif" align=left hspace=12>scientific
software needs within the context of an academic environment. The Alfred P.
Sloan Foundation and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation are also
experimenting with ways to connect academic institutions with maintainers of
data science software, in </p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection49>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:576.5pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:-107.35pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:
107%'><img width=816 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image024.gif"><br
clear=ALL>
<br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:81.1pt;
margin-left:.3pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
5.5pt;line-height:110%'>DE vELOpING EFFEC TIvE SUppORT STRATEGIES</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:108.2pt;margin-bottom:
12.4pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>Developing effective support strategies</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:72.75pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Although there is growing interest in efforts to
support digital infrastructure, current initiatives are still new, ad hoc or
provide only partial support (such as fiscal sponsorship).</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Developing effective support strategies requires a
nuanced understanding of the open source culture that characterizes so much of
our digital infrastructure, as well as recognizing that much has changed in the
past five years, including the very definition of “open source” itself.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Money alone will not fix a struggling infrastructure
project, because open source thrives on human rather than financial resources.
There are many ways to grow human resources, such as distributing the workload
among more contributors or encouraging companies to make open source part of
their employees’ work. An effective support strategy must include multiple ways
to generate time and resources besides directly financing development. It must
start from the principle that the open source approach is not inherently
flawed, but rather under-resourced.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:105.55pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Supporting infrastructure requires embracing the
concept of stewardship rather than control. As we’ve seen, digital
infrastructure doesn’t look like physical infrastructure. It is distributed
across multiple actors and organizations, with projects of many shapes and
sizes, and it is hard to predict which projects will be successful or who will
contribute to them in the long term. With this in mind, here are some suggested
design principles for effective support strategies:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:20.3pt;
margin-left:.3pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><img width=59 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image012.gif" align=left hspace=12><span
style='font-size:5.5pt;line-height:110%'>DE vELOpING EFFEC TIvE SUppORT
STRATEGIES</span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=516
style='width:387.0pt;margin-left:.65pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:86.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 26.15pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:86.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:1.1pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.2pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Embrace, rather than fight against,
decentralization.</span></i></b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:
107%'> Open source is meant to be distributed; that’s part of what makes it
so impactful. Leverage the community-driven approach as a strength rather
than centralizing authority.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 26.15pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:56.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 26.15pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:56.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:1.4pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.35pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Work closely with existing software
communities.</span></i></b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>
Software communities are active, tight-knit, and vocal. Treat them as an
asset rather than making decisions behind closed doors. Prominent community
voices are canaries in the coal mine when something needs attending to.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 26.15pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:73.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 26.15pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:73.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:2.95pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:1.2pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:
inter-ideograph;text-indent:-.15pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Consider a holistic approach to
project support.</span></i></b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:
107%'> Projects need more than just code or money, and sometimes, they need
neither. Long-term support is more about creating time than it is about
money. Code reviews, technical documentation, code testing, community
advocacy, and evangelism are all important resources.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 26.15pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:73.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 26.15pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:73.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:1.05pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.25pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Help project maintainers plan
ahead. </span></i></b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Current
efforts to support digital infrastructure tend to be reactive and ad hoc. In
addition to existing projects, there may be new projects that need to be
supported and built. For existing projects, maintainers will benefit greatly
from being able to plan for the next three to five years, not just six months
to a year.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 26.15pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:137.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 26.15pt 0cm 34.85pt;height:137.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:14.85pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:1.4pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:
inter-ideograph;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:126%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:126%'>Recognize opportunities, not just
risks. </span></i></b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:126%'>Modern
open source support is not just about preventing worst-case scenarios (for
example, security breaches), but rather empowering more people to build more
things. </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:1.35pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-1.35pt;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>This concept is a
hallmark of today’s open source culture and also helps build a legacy of
support. Consider how you can include more people from different backgrounds,
skill sets, and abilities in your strategy, rather than limiting work to
benefitting existing participants.</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:91.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>David Heinemeier Hansson, the creator of Ruby on
Rails, compared open source to a coral reef: </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:63.25pt;margin-bottom:
.2pt;margin-left:38.7pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:105%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:105%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>It's more sensitive than you think, and it's [hard] to
underestimate the beauty that's unwittingly at stake. Please tread with care.</span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:105%'>192 </span></sup><sup><span
style='font-size:9.0pt;line-height:105%'>192</span></sup><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:105%;color:black'><img width=13 height=1
id="Group 63358" src="roads-and_filtered_files/image022.gif"></span><sup><span
style='font-size:9.0pt;line-height:105%'> </span></sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:15.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://david.heinemeierhansson.com/2013/the-perils-ofmixing-open-source-andmoney.html
</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection50>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.55pt;margin-bottom:
9.05pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>Priming the landscape</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.3pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>It is too early to say what long-term institutional
support should look like from a programmatic perspective, but there are several
critical areas of work that would help us get there.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:11.6pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>The following suggestions fall into three
areas:</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=516
style='width:387.0pt;margin-left:3.25pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:52.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=bottom style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;
padding:0cm 27.9pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:52.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:4.15pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:
inter-ideograph;text-indent:-.95pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Treating digital infrastructure as
a necessary public good </span></i></b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%'>and elevating its importance to key stakeholders across
sectors</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 27.9pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:5.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 27.9pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:5.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.55pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>Working with projects</span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'> to improve standards, security,
and workflows</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:30.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 27.9pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:30.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:52.0pt'>
<td width=516 valign=top style='width:387.0pt;background:#FEEAE1;padding:
0cm 27.9pt 0cm 35.3pt;height:52.0pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;
text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:107%'><b><i><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%'>Expanding the pool of contributors </span></i></b><i><span
style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:107%'>so that more people, and more types
of people, can build and sustain public software together</span></i></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2 style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:8.5pt;margin-left:
2.35pt'>Building awareness and educating key stakeholders</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:91.1pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>As discussed in this report, many key
stakeholders—including those from startups, government, and venture
capital—mistakenly believe that public software “just works” and does not
require additional support. In order to adequately support our digital infrastructure
ecosystem, these populations must first be made aware of the problem. Digital
infrastructure needs advocates, unhampered by political or commercial
constraints, who can understand and communicate the needs of digital
infrastructure.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.2pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Treating digital infrastructure as
a necessary public good could also help direct investment into building better
systems from scratch. For example, in the United States, the interstate highway
system and the public library system were intentionally designed as public resources.
Both had champions (President Dwight Eisenhower and philanthropist Andrew
Carnegie, respectively), who built a case for the social and financial benefit
that would result from these projects. A national highway system not only
connected us as people, making it easier to get from place to place, but
brought financial prosperity to all corners of the country, due to commercial
use of highways to transport goods. Andrew Carnegie’s free public libraries
used an </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:100.3pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:3.8pt;text-indent:-3.05pt'>“open stack” instead of a “closed
stack” system, enabling people to browse and find information themselves,
instead of requesting it from a librarian. This practice helped democratize
information and empower people to educate themselves.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:94.95pt;margin-bottom:
25.35pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Better education and awareness could also extend to
governments, some of which have made digital infrastructure legally difficult
to support, and who may not be as familiar with the cultural norms and history
of open source. In the United States, the IRS has narrow definitions of what it
considers to be charitable work, and because open source is not well
understood, its positive impact on society goes unnoticed. This makes it
difficult to institutionalize bigger projects under a foundation or trade
association.</p>
<h2 style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:131.65pt;margin-bottom:8.5pt;margin-left:
2.35pt'>Measuring the usage and impact of digital infrastructure</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>The impact of digital infrastructure is
still very difficult to measure. </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Usage metrics are either highly inaccurate
or simply unavailable. </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>This is not an easy problem to solve for.
But without data about </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:77.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>which tools are used, and how much we rely upon them,
it is hard to paint a clear picture of what is underfunded.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>With better metrics, we could describe the economic
impact of digital infrastructure, identify critical projects that are lacking
support, and understand dependencies between projects and people. Right now, it
is impossible to say who is using an open source project unless that person or
company discloses their usage. Our information about which projects need better
support is mostly anecdotal.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=625 style='width:469.05pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:37.55pt'>
<td width=527 valign=bottom style='width:395.6pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:37.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:18.75pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.05pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.05pt;line-height:
107%'>ronment relative to its abundance.<sup>193</sup> Similarly, a “keystone
contributor” might be a developer who contributes to multiple critical </p>
</td>
<td width=98 valign=top style='width:73.45pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:37.55pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>193 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Keystone_species</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:100.05pt;margin-bottom:
2.35pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=14 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left hspace=12>Better metrics
could also help us identify “keystone contributors” to open source. In
conservation biology, a “keystone species” is a species of animal with a
disproportionately large effect on its envi-</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:7.7pt;margin-right:94.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>projects, is singlehandedly responsible for a
critical project, or is generally perceived to be influential and trustworthy.
Keystone contributors are critical advocates; empowering them with the
resources they need could help improve the system as a whole. Understanding the
relationship between open source communities and keystone contributors could
help quickly identify areas that require further support.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.8pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>There is also little data about the contributors
themselves: who contributes to open source, what conditions allow them to do
so, and what types of contributions are made. Women, non-English speakers, and
new contributors to open source are examples of demographics that should be
tracked over time, especially to measure the impact of support programs.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.25pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The only statistics available about GitHub
repositories are the number of people who have starred (similar to a “like” or
“favorite”), watched (meaning they receive updates about the project) or forked
a project. These numbers help provide some metrics for relative popularity, but
can also be misleading. Plenty of people could star a project, for example,
because it is conceptually interesting, but not actually use it in their code.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:102.7pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Some package managers like npm
(which is used for Node.js) track downloads. Debian Popularity Contest tracks
downloads of packages related to the free operating system Debian. Each package
manager is limited to a particular ecosystem, however, and no one package
manager can paint a picture of the system at large. Many projects are not part
of a package manager and go untracked. Libraries.io, a website created by
Andrew Nesbitt, is one effort to aggregate data open source projects and
provide more data around their usage; it tracks over 1.3M open source libraries
across 32 package </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:1.6pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'>managers.<sup>194 </sup><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>194</span><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=14 height=1 id="Group 62443"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image018.gif"></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;
line-height:107%'> </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:21.95pt;
margin-bottom:25.45pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>https://libraries.io/</span></p>
<h2 style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:187.55pt;margin-bottom:8.5pt;margin-left:
2.35pt'>Working with projects to modernize workflows</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.15pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Many projects struggle not just due to lack of
funding, but because the projects are difficult to contribute to, or suffer a
bottleneck from maintainers, who meticulously review and accept pull requests
from the community. This is particularly true for older projects which may have
been built using developer tools, languages, or workflows that are no longer
popular (for example, using an older version control system instead of Git,
whose popularity is growing among developers).</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:103.3pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>There is plenty of work that can be done to make
projects easier to contribute to, including migrating them to newer workflows,
cleaning up code, closing unattended pull requests, and setting clear policies
for contribution.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=623 style='width:467.3pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:227.8pt'>
<td width=530 valign=top style='width:397.45pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:227.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:26.95pt;
margin-left:1.35pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i>turning one-man
projects into small communities.” </i><sup>195</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:31.45pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:1.3pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-1.3pt;line-height:
107%'>The Node.js contribution policy, which is made available for other Node
projects to adopt, emphasizes growing the number of contributors and
empowering them to make their own decisions, instead of treating maintainers
as the final approving authority. Their contribution policy details how to
submit and accept pull requests and how to log bugs and other issues. The
Node.js maintainers found that adopting better policies helped them manage
their workload and grow their community into a healthier, active project.<sup>196</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=93 valign=top style='width:69.85pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:227.8pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>195 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:148.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://felixge.de/2013/03/11/
the-pull-request-hack.html</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>196 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>https://medium.com/
the-javascript-collection/ healthy-open-source967fa8be7951#.4x37jao9w</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:97.0pt;margin-bottom:
219.95pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=14 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=14
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left hspace=12>Some
projects have experimented with making it easier to contribute. For example,
developer Felix Geisendörfer has suggested that everybody who submits a change
to code should be given commit access, in order to reduce the bottleneck of a
single maintainer reviewing and approving those changes. Felix found that <i>“this
approach is a fantastic way to keep projects from going stale as well as </i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:112.65pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>There is research to be done that addresses what
projects should strive towards in the first place. That is, what does a
“successful” project look like, in terms of financial support and governance
models, as well as balancing the right mix of maintainers, contributors, and
users? The answer may vary for different types or sizes of projects.</p>
<h2 style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:135.75pt;margin-bottom:8.5pt;margin-left:
2.35pt'>Encouraging standards across open source projects</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:101.3pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Although GitHub is becoming a standard platform for
code collaboration, many aspects of an open source project are still not
standardized, including the breadth and depth of documentation, licenses, and
contributing guides, as well as code style and formatting. Encouraging the
adoption of project standards can make it easier for maintainers to manage
contributions, as well as lowering a contributor’s barrier to participation.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.05pt;margin-bottom:
25.4pt;margin-left:.95pt'>One example of a growing standard is a code of
conduct, which is a policy detailing expectations for behavior and
communication. Codes of conduct are being adopted among many project
communities in recent years, including Node.js, Django, and Ruby. Although the
process of adoption has been hotly debated among some communities, their
proliferation suggests a rising interest in holding communities accountable for
their behavior.</p>
<h2 style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:187.7pt;margin-bottom:8.5pt;margin-left:
2.35pt'>Expanding the pool of open source contributors</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.85pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>As discussed earlier in this report, software is a
booming industry, with growing numbers of just new developers but other skilled
talent, and there is work to be done to encourage newcomers to contribute to
open source. Expanding the pool of contributors helps open source projects
become more resilient, because more people are participating in their
development. Helping more people contribute to open source also increases
empathy and communication between open source “users” and the projects they
depend on.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=633 style='width:474.95pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:97.6pt'>
<td width=528 valign=bottom style='width:395.7pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:97.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:35.45pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.1pt;line-height:107%'>bution
to open source.<sup>197</sup> First Timers Only<sup>198</sup> and Make a Pull
Request<sup>199</sup> are two other popular examples of resources that
introduce newcomers to open source. Some open source projects also use tags
such as “first bug” or “contributor friendly” to flag issues that are
suitable for less experienced contributors to tackle. It would </p>
</td>
<td width=106 valign=top style='width:79.25pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:97.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:218%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:218%'>197<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:218%;color:black'>https://twitter.com/yourfirstpr</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:218%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:218%'>198<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:218%;color:black'>http://www.firsttimersonly.com/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>199<span
style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://makeapullrequest.com/</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:96.8pt;margin-bottom:
2.4pt;margin-left:.95pt'><img width=13 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image020.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=14
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=14 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left
hspace=12>Your First PR is an example of an initiative, developed by programmer
Charlotte Spencer, that helps newcomers make their first contri-</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:7.7pt;margin-right:83.1pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>also be valuable to encourage contributions to open
source beyond code, such as writing technical documentation, managing tasks and
workflows, or creating a website for a project.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.35pt;margin-bottom:
25.4pt;margin-left:.95pt'>In addition to increasing the percentage of technical
talent that contributes to open source, there is an opportunity to draw from a
wider pool of contributors. Making non-English speakers feel welcomed in open
source communities, for example, can help make technology more accessible
around the world. And because many recruiters use open source work as a
portfolio when hiring developers, a more diverse open source community can help
build a more inclusive tech talent field overall.</p>
<h2 style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:81.35pt;margin-bottom:8.5pt;margin-left:
2.35pt'>Improving relationships between projects and external stakeholders</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:96.45pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Companies are an inevitable part of the open source
ecosystem, and their role is only increasing in importance as more companies
embrace open source software. Making it easier for companies and projects to
work with one another, as well as helping companies understand the needs of
project communities, can unlock companies as patrons of, and advocates for,
open source.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>According to the annual Black Duck open
source company survey, </p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=630 style='width:472.6pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:521.6pt'>
<td width=532 valign=bottom style='width:399.15pt;padding:0cm 0cm .3pt 0cm;
height:521.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:29.6pt;margin-bottom:
19.35pt;margin-left:3.05pt;text-indent:.15pt;line-height:140%'>tions to open
source.<sup>200</sup> Clarifying whether and how employees may contribute back
to open source on company time, and encouraging them to do so, could go a
long way in improving corporate support for open source projects.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:36.2pt;margin-bottom:
1.75pt;margin-left:3.0pt;text-indent:-.1pt;line-height:137%'>In 2014, a group
of companies formed the TODO Group, to share best practices around corporate
participation in open source. Members include Box, Facebook, Dropbox,
Twitter, and Stripe.<sup>201</sup> In </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:11.25pt;margin-bottom:
23.45pt;margin-left:3.0pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:132%'>March 2016, the
TODO Group announced it would be housed by the Linux Foundation as a
collaborative project.<sup>202</sup></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:9.85pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:2.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:
136%'>Companies can also provide financial support for projects, but
sometimes find it difficult to figure out how to structure their sponsorship.
Creating sponsorship budgets for engineering departments or employees, or
creating documents to make it easy for projects to </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:52.55pt;margin-bottom:
20.0pt;margin-left:3.2pt;text-indent:-3.2pt;line-height:136%'>“invoice”
companies, could increase financial contributions to open source.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:34.25pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:2.5pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:.55pt;line-height:
107%'>Poul-Henning Kamp, for example, works on an open source project called
Varnish, used by one-tenth of the top websites on the Internet, including
Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, The New York Times, and The Guardian.<sup>203</sup>
To fund his work, he created the Varnish Moral License to make it easy for
companies to sponsor the project. Although in practice the relationship is a
sponsorship, Poul-Henning uses terminology that companies are familiar with,
such as “invoices” and “licenses,” to reduce barriers to participation.<sup>204</sup></p>
</td>
<td width=98 valign=top style='width:73.45pt;padding:0cm 0cm .3pt 0cm;
height:521.6pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>200 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:80.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>https://www.blackducksoftware.com/news/releases/
seventy-eight-percent-companies-run-open-source-yetmany-lack-formal-policiesmanage</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:10.35pt;margin-bottom:
8.0pt;margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:218%'><span
style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:218%'>201 </span><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:218%;color:black'>http://todogroup.org/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>202 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:200.0pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:109%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:109%;color:black'>http://todogroup.org/blog/
todo-becomes-lf-collaborative-project/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>203 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;
color:black'>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:48.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>Varnish_(software)</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%'>204 </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:508.7pt;
margin-left:.95pt'><img width=15 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image025.gif" align=left hspace=12><img width=14
height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image017.gif" align=left hspace=12><img
width=15 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image025.gif" align=left
hspace=12><img width=15 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image025.gif"
align=left hspace=12><img width=15 height=1
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image025.gif" align=left hspace=12>only 27% of
companies have a formal policy for employee contribu-</p>
<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.45pt;
margin-bottom:.15pt;margin-left:.5pt;text-align:right;text-indent:-.5pt;
line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://phk.freebsd.dk/VML/</span></p>
<h2 style='margin-left:2.35pt'>Increasing support of diverse skill sets and
non-coding functions</h2>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.95pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>In the not-too-distant past, software startups were
once heavily weighted towards engineering talent. Other functions, like
marketing or design, were considered secondary to code.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:92.35pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>With the rapid creation and consumerization of
software today, that view no longer holds. Startups need to compete for their
customers’ attention. Brand has become one of the most important
differentiators.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:104.35pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>The last five years have seen the rise of the “full
stack engineer”: developers who are more generalists than specialists, able to
work on different layers of software complexity, and who might even have some
proficiency with design or product. Software teams collaborate more closely,
using agile software development approaches (where the product is built through
frequent iteration between engineering, design, product, and marketing teams)
rather than waterfall approaches (where each team completes their piece of the
product before handing it to the next team).</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:97.65pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Open source software has seen very
few of these changes, despite our increasing reliance on these projects.
Understandably, code is central to an open source project, since in some ways
it is the </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:68.3pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:3.75pt;text-indent:-3.0pt'>“product” or output. Less valued
are functions such as community, documentation, or evangelism, that are the
mark of any healthy, sustainable organization. As a result, projects become
imbalanced.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:99.4pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>There is plenty of work that could be done to fund
and support non-code contributions, in-kind donations (such as paying for
servers), and benefits (such as health insurance). Having this type of support
could go a long way in easing the burden on maintainers.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection51>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:86.55pt;margin-bottom:
9.05pt;margin-left:.8pt;text-indent:-.45pt;line-height:102%;background:#F5826C'><b><span
style='font-size:22.0pt;line-height:102%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:white'>The crossroads we face</span></b></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>The current state of our digital infrastructure is one of
the most poorly understood issues of our time. It is critical that we
understand it.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>By making a voluntary investment in our underlying
infrastructure, developers made it easier for others to build software. By
giving it away for free instead of charging for it, they fueled an information
revolution.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Developers did not do this for altruistic reasons. They did
it because it was the best way to solve their own problems. The story of open
source software is one of the great modern day triumphs of the public good.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>We are lucky that developers have borne the hidden cost of
these investments. But their initial investments only get us so far.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>We are merely at the beginning of the story of how software
transformed humanity. Marc Andreessen, the co-founder of Netscape and
well-known venture capitalist behind the firm Andreessen Horowitz, observed in
2011 that <i>“software is eating the world.” </i><sup>205</sup> Since then,
that statement that has become canon for the modern age.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Software affects everything we do: not just the frivolous
and entertaining, but the mandatory and critical. OpenSSL, the project
described at the beginning of this paper, demonstrates this well. In a phone
interview, Steve Marquess explained that OpenSSL was used not just by consumer
websites, but by the government, drones, satellites, <i>“any gadget you hear in
the hospital beeping.” </i><sup>206</sup> </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>205 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=15 height=1 id="Group 63603"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image026.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>http://www.wsj.com/articles/
SB10001424053111903480904</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:115.95pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>576512250915629460</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>206 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:4.75pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:11.0pt;
line-height:107%;color:black'><img width=15 height=1 id="Group 63604"
src="roads-and_filtered_files/image026.gif"></span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.3pt;margin-bottom:.15pt;
margin-left:.55pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:110%;color:black'>Phone interview with Steve Marquess</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection52>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>The Network Time Protocol, maintained
by Harlan Stenn, synchronizes the clocks used by billions of networked devices
and affects everything with a timestamp: not just messaging apps or email, but </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:10.7pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>financial markets, medical records, and
chemical processing.</p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=625
style='width:468.9pt;margin-left:1.2pt;border-collapse:collapse'>
<tr style='height:143.75pt'>
<td width=528 valign=top style='width:396.25pt;padding:1.15pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:143.75pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:43.15pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:
inter-ideograph;text-indent:14.75pt;line-height:107%'><b><span
style='font-size:110.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#FEEAE1'>“</span></b><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;
font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;color:#F5826C'>But there's just no
revenue stream around time right now. </span></i>And yet, Harlan observes:</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:23.7pt;
margin-left:35.65pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><i><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>There is a need for support for the free public
infrastructure. </span></i></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:26.55pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:36.5pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.4pt;line-height:
107%'><i><span style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%;font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;
color:#F5826C'>People scream if their clocks are off by a second. They say,
‘Yes, we need you, but we can't give you any money.' </span></i><sup><span
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:107%'>207</span></sup></p>
</td>
<td width=97 valign=bottom style='width:72.65pt;padding:1.15pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;
height:143.75pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:8.1pt;
margin-left:0cm;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:
6.0pt;line-height:107%'>207 </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><span style='font-size:6.0pt;line-height:107%;color:black'>http://www.informationweek.
com/it-life/ntps-fate-hinges-on-father-time/d/did/1319432</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>
<table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0>
<tr>
<td width=672 height=0></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img width=15 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image025.gif"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br clear=ALL>
In the last five years, open source infrastructure has become an essential
layer of our social fabric. But much like startups or technology itself, what
worked for the first 30 years of open source’s history won’t work moving
forward. In order to maintain our pace of progress, we need to invest back into
the tools that help us build bigger and better things.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Figuring out how to support digital infrastructure may seem
daunting, but there are plenty of reasons to see the road ahead as an
opportunity.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Firstly, the infrastructure is already there, with clearly
demonstrated present value. This report does not propose to invest in an idea
with unknown future value. The enormous social contributions of today’s digital
infrastructure cannot be ignored or argued away, as has happened with other,
equally important debates about data and privacy, net neutrality, or private
versus public interests. This makes it easier to shift the conversation to
solutions.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Secondly, there are already engaged, thriving open source
communities to work with. Many developers identify with the programming
language they use (such as Python or JavaScript), the function they provide
(such as data science or devops), or a prominent project (such as Node.js or
Rails). These are strong, vocal, and enthusiastic communities.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>The builders of our digital infrastructure are connected to
each other, aware of their needs, and technically talented. They already built
our city; we just need to help keep the lights on so they can continue doing
what they do best.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Infrastructure, whether physical or digital, is not easy to
understand, and its effects are not always visible, but this should compel us
to look more, not less, closely. When a community has spoken so vocally and so
often about its needs, all we need to do is listen.</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
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<div class=WordSection53>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:540.0pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:-72.0pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><img
width=816 height=1 src="roads-and_filtered_files/image024.gif"><br clear=ALL>
</p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection54>
<h1 style='margin-left:.2pt'>Glossary</h1>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Code
repository: </span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>The
location of source code needed to use a software project. For example, GitHub
offers a place to host one’s repository so that other people can find and use
it. Also colloquially called a “repo.” The collection of source code files
themselves are called the “codebase.”</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:12.0pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Digital
infrastructure:</span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'> For
the purposes of this report, digital infrastructure refers to public software
components that are used to build software for personal or commercial use.
Examples include programming languages and databases. This definition does not
include physical infrastructure needed to build software (e.g., physical
servers or cables).</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Fork:
</span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>There are two types
of forks. A <b>project fork </b>is the historical definition of a fork, in
which someone makes a copy of an open source project and continues to develop
it separately. It is used politically; for example, when there is internal
disagreement about the project’s direction, or to force substantial changes to
the original project (ideally, merging the fork back into the main project). A <b>GitHub
fork </b>refers to temporarily copying a project to make changes, usually with
the intent of merging those changes back into the main project. It does not
carry the political and social weight of a project fork. GitHub repurposed this
term to encourage a culture of lightweight “tinkering” that is now prevalent
among modern open source contributors.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:16.0pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Contributor
(open source):</span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>
Someone who has made a contribution to a live open source project. Examples of
contributions include writing code, documentation, or managing support issues.
A contributor may not have commit access to a project (i.e. someone else must
approve their contributions before they are live).</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Documentation
(software): </span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Written
information that explains how people can use or contribute back to a software
project. Documentation is like an instruction manual for software. Without it,
a developer wouldn’t know how to use the project.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.85pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;
text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;
line-height:131%'>FOSS, FLOSS, OSS:</span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;
line-height:131%'> FOSS is an acronym that means Free and Open Source </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Software.
It is meant to be inclusive of both terms that refer to public software. FLOSS
refers to Free, Libre, and Open Source Software and is arguably the most
inclusive definition. (The Spanish word libre—“free” as in freedom—is used to
distinguish from gratis - “free” as in cost—in order to highlight that “free
software” refers to the former.) OSS refers to Open Source Software only.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Free
software:</span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'> Software
that is free to run for any purpose (commercial or non-commercial) as well as
be studied, changed, and distributed. The term originated around 1983 from the
work of computer scientist Richard Stallman, the GNU Project, and Free Software
Foundation (founded 1985).</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>GitHub:
</span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>A commercial
platform for hosting code. GitHub launched in 2008 and is currently the most
popular platform for people to host and collaborate on open source projects.
(One can also host private code on GitHub.) GitHub helped standardize open
source development practices and bring open source to a wider audience.
Projects on GitHub use the version control system Git.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:3.75pt;margin-bottom:
0cm;margin-left:.85pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:
inter-ideograph;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:
10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Open source software: </span></b><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Open source software has the same
technical definition as free software (see above). However, culturally, open
source tends to highlight the pragmatic benefits of public software, whereas
free software is a social movement. The term “open source” originated from a
1998 meeting of parties interested in exploring a corporate friendly
alternative to the term </span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>“free
software.”</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Maintainer
(open source):</span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>
Someone who assumes the responsibility of an open source project. The
definition varies from project to project. Sometimes maintainers are formally
named in a project, and sometimes they emerge de facto based on who is doing
the bulk of the work. A maintainer likely carries the burden of holistic
project management more than any individual contributor. They may or may not
have authored the original version of the project. They will likely have commit
access to a project (i.e. can make changes directly to the project).</span></p>
<table class=TableGrid border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 align=left
width=484 style='width:363.1pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:-2.25pt;
margin-right:-2.25pt'>
<tr style='height:10.25pt'>
<td width=229 valign=top style='width:172.1pt;padding:0cm 5.75pt 0cm 0cm;
height:10.25pt'>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;
line-height:107%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:107%'>Software
framework:</span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:107%'>
Software frame-</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Programming
language:</span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>
Programming languages are the communication backbone of software. They help
different software components perform actions and talk to one another. Popular
examples of languages include JavaScript, Python and C.</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection55>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>works
provide basic scaffolding for an application. Think of it as a blueprint. Like
a blueprint, a framework lays out how the application might look on mobile, or
how information gets saved into the database. Examples include Rails and
Django.</span></p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.45pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:131%'><b><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Source code: </span></b><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>For the purposes of this <b>Software
library: </b>Software libraries are “prefabricated” pieces of code that make it
faster to write software, just as a construction company might buy prefabricated
windows instead of building them from scratch. For example, instead of a
developer writing their own user login system for an application, they can use
a library called OAuth.</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection56>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>report,
source code is the actual code </span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection57>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:.85pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>associated
with an open source project.</span></p>
</div>
<span style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:137%;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:auto'>
</span>
<div class=WordSection58>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:7.85pt;
margin-left:189.5pt;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;text-indent:
-.5pt;line-height:131%'><b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'>Venture
capital:</span></b><span style='font-size:10.0pt;line-height:131%'> A type of
private equity that provides money to early-stage, high-growth companies in
exchange for equity. Venture capital helped grow many commercial aspects of the
Internet and gave rise to Silicon Valley.</span></p>
<h1 style='margin-left:.2pt'>Acknowledgements</h1>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:0cm;
margin-left:.95pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt'>Thanks to everybody who bravely agreed
to be cited in this report, as well as to those whose frank and thoughtful
perspectives helped round out my thoughts during the research process: André
Arko, Brian Behlendorf, Adam Benayoun, Juan Benet, Cory Benfield, Kris </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Borchers, John Edgar, Maciej Fijalkowski,
Karl Fogel, Brian Ford, Sue </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Graves, Eric Holscher, Brandon Keepers,
Russell Keith-Magee, Kyle </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Kemp, Jan Lehnardt, Jessica Lord, Steve
Marquess, Karissa McKelvey, </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Heather Meeker, Philip Neustrom, Max Ogden,
Arash Payan, Stormy </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:4.2pt;
margin-left:.95pt;line-height:107%'>Peters, Andrey Petrov, Peter Rabbitson,
Mikeal Rogers, Hynek </p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Schlawack, Boaz Sender, Quinn Slack, Chris Soghoian,
Charlotte Spencer, Harlan Stenn, Diane Tate, Max Veytsman, Christopher Allan
Webber, Chad Whitacre, Meredith Whittaker, Doug Wilson.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:13.85pt;margin-bottom:
19.8pt;margin-left:.95pt'>Thanks to everybody who wrote something public that
was referenced in this paper. This was a critical part of the research, and I
am thankful to those who make their ideas public so others can learn from them.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Thanks to Franz Nicolay for copy editing and Brave UX for
the design of this report.</p>
<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:.75pt;margin-bottom:19.8pt;
margin-left:.95pt'>Finally, a very special thanks to Jenny Toomey and Michael
Brennan for driving this project with patience and enthusiasm, to Lori
McGlinchey and Freedman Consulting for their early feedback, and to Ethan
Zuckerman for making the magic happen.</p>
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color:#3F3F41'><br clear=all style='page-break-before:always'>
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margin-left:199.0pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:-.5pt;line-height:110%'><span
style='font-size:5.5pt;line-height:110%'>SpONSOR ED B y</span></p>
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margin-left:167.65pt;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-indent:0cm;line-height:107%'><img
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src="roads-and_filtered_files/image027.jpg"></p>
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