This project is an attempt to explicate the text Evolution and Consciousness, by Leslie Dewart.
We have a glossary of terms that may be helpful in understanding the concepts in play.
We then follow with a chapter-by-chapter breakdown of the arguments of the text, expressed in the most accessible terms possible.
Finally, we end with a "quiz" for each chapter, diving deeply into the nuances of the text via a catechism-like series of questions and answers.
Absent-minded consciousness - A state of consciousness characterized by a lack of awareness of one's own mental processes, particularly the act of assertion in speech. This leads to the projection of one's own assertiveness onto reality, as if reality itself were speaking through the individual. Usage: "The absent-minded consciousness of the apodictic speaker is evident in their use of verbal predication."
Acculturation - The process by which a culture adopts the traits of another culture, often leading to the suppression or replacement of its own original characteristics. Usage: "Acculturation of phenomenal cultures to the ontic mind has been a significant trend in recent centuries."
Adjustive - Refers to the ability of organisms to adapt to their environment. In the context of the text, this term is used to discuss the interplay between an organism's ability to adapt and its ability to reproduce, which drives natural selection. Usage: "The heart of evolution, if I may so put it, is located in the genital apparatus. Every biological theory of the origin of infrahuman species has, therefore, always rested on a prior construction of the generative process."
Apodictic speech - A variant of thematic speech characterized by the use of verbs to assert a predicate in relation to a subject. Apodictic speakers experience their assertions as repetitions of what reality itself asserts, as if reality were speaking through them. Apodictic speech is characterized by assertions that are presented as absolutely certain and unquestionable. Usage: "The apodictic speaker uses verbs to assert predicates in relation to subjects, as if repeating what reality itself articulates."
Communicand - The recipient of a communication. Usage: "...their effect upon a communicand."
Cultural evolution - The transmission of learned behaviors and knowledge from one generation to the next through communication and social learning, as opposed to genetic inheritance. The text argues that cultural evolution is distinct from and operates independently of organic evolution. Usage: "Cultures…“evolve,” not according to the mechanism of organic evolution, but independently of it."
Cultural Neurosis - A state of dysfunction within a culture, characterized by maladaptive behaviors, beliefs, and practices that hinder the fulfillment of the inherent purposes of human life. Usage: "Defective integration of efficient and final causality leads to cultural neurosis."
Depositional speech - A variant of thematic speech characterized by the absence of verbs like "to be" and the use of juxtaposition to assert a predicate in relation to a theme. Depositional speakers are more aware of their own role in the act of assertion and do not project their assertiveness onto reality. Depositional speech is characterized by assertions that are presented as tentative and open to questioning. Usage: "In depositional speech, the simple juxtaposition of thesis and theme is sufficient to convey the speaker's assertion."
Efficient Causality - The relationship between a cause and its effect, where the cause directly produces the effect. Usage: "Let us take efficient causality first. To experience it, an experiencer must do two things."
Emergence of Consciousness - The process by which consciousness arises from the interaction of simpler components or processes. Usage: "The aptness of communication for mediating the emergence of consciousness"
Emergent - A property or phenomenon of a system that arises from the interactions of its components, rather than being explicitly programmed or present in the components themselves. The text uses this term to describe properties like consciousness and socio-cultural life, which are not reducible to individual organic functions. Usage: "nowadays most biologists say whatever they may mean by it that evolution is an emergent process."
Ethnocentricity - The tendency to view one's own culture as superior to others and to interpret all cultural phenomena through the lens of one's own cultural norms and values. Usage: "Ethnocentricity can prevent the recognition of cultural differences."
Feral children - Children who have grown up with little or no human contact, often in isolation or raised by animals. The text uses feral children as evidence to support the claim that consciousness is not innate but acquired through social interaction. Usage: "the evidence is restricted to the observations made in the few recorded instances of ‘wolf children,’ ‘attic children,’ ‘feral men,’ and the like."
Final Causality - The idea that actions are directed towards a goal or purpose. In this context, it refers to the ability of pre-humans to act in ways that satisfy their wants, even without conscious awareness of those wants. Usage: "The same may be said of final causality."
Gene-culture coevolution - A theory proposing that human evolution is shaped by the interplay between genetic inheritance and cultural transmission. It suggests that cultural practices can influence the selection of genes, and vice versa. Usage: "In man, it was proposed, the process is ‘geneculture coevolution.’"
Genetic - In the context of this text, "genetic" has two meanings. First, it refers to the biological transmission of traits through genes. Second, it is used figuratively to describe the transmission of learned behaviors and cultural information through communication, although the author argues this is not truly genetic. Usage: "This cultural inheritance does the same thing for man that in the subhuman world is done by the genetic system, which transmits its “information”…in the form of a DNA chain… [B]esides his biological system, man has a completely new “genetic” system dependent on cultural transmission."
Inchoatively Self-Present - A state where something is beginning to be present to itself, or to have self-awareness. This is a precursor to full consciousness. Usage: "...become inchoatively selfpresent that is, selfcoincident before consciousness had appeared..."
Infrahuman - Refers to organisms below the level of humans on the evolutionary scale, such as animals. The text uses this term to distinguish between the evolutionary processes of humans and other species. Usage: "every theory of human phylogeny the origin of man’s specific nature has invariably been conditioned by implicit or explicit assumptions about the nature of human ontogeny, the process whereby the individual comes into being."
Natural selection - The process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more successfully than others, leading to the evolution of species. The text discusses natural selection as the driving force of organic evolution, but argues that human evolution involves an additional mechanism. Usage: "If the cause of biological evolution is natural selection, life does not evolve necessarily but only if certain adventitious conditions disturb its adjustment."
Ontic - Relating to the nature of being or existence. In the context of the text, it refers to a form of consciousness characterized by a strong sense of self and a belief in an objective reality independent of human perception. Usage: "The ontic cultures are characterized by their apodictic form of speech."
Ontic variant of the self-defining consciousness - The form of consciousness and culture mediated by apodictic speech. Ontic cultures tend to interpret reality and causality in terms of objective, absolute truths and are prone to projecting their own assertiveness onto the world. Usage: "The ontic variant of the self-defining consciousness is characterized by a belief in absolute reality and a tendency to interpret experience as a repetition of what reality asserts."
Ontogeny - The development or course of development of an individual organism from conception to maturity. The text contrasts ontogeny with phylogeny, which refers to the evolutionary history of a species. Usage: "every theory of human phylogeny the origin of man’s specific nature has invariably been conditioned by implicit or explicit assumptions about the nature of human ontogeny, the process whereby the individual comes into being."
Phenomenal - Relating to appearances or perceptions. In the context of the text, it refers to a form of consciousness characterized by a more fluid sense of self and a greater emphasis on the subjective experience of reality. Usage: "The phenomenal cultures are characterized by their depositional form of speech."
Phenomenal variant of the self-defining consciousness - The form of consciousness and culture mediated by depositional speech. Phenomenal cultures tend to be more aware of the subjective nature of experience and are less likely to project their own assertiveness onto the world. Usage: "The phenomenal variant of the self-defining consciousness is characterized by a greater awareness of the subjective nature of experience and a tendency to interpret reality in terms of relationships and interactions."
Phylogeny - The evolutionary history of a species or group of organisms. The text discusses phylogeny in relation to the origin and development of human nature. Usage: "every theory of human phylogeny the origin of man’s specific nature has invariably been conditioned by implicit or explicit assumptions about the nature of human ontogeny, the process whereby the individual comes into being."
Potentiality - The inherent capacity or possibility for something to become actual or to develop in a particular way. The text distinguishes between two types of potentiality: notional (theoretical possibility) and real (based on existing structures or capacities). Usage: "It is true, then, that all human organisms, however immature even from conception have the potentiality for consciousness and selfhood. Nothing indicates, however, that this potentiality is any but a purely notional one."
Self-Coincident - A state where something coincides with itself, or is unified. In this context, it refers to the experience of efficacy and finality becoming unified within the pre-human communicator. Usage: "...become inchoatively selfpresent that is, selfcoincident before consciousness had appeared..."
Self-selection - The author's proposed term for the mechanism driving human evolution, distinct from natural selection. It suggests that human evolution is shaped by the conscious choices and actions of individuals, driven by the need for self-identity and self-definition. Usage: "Yet more fittingly, however, I shall call it selfselection. My reasons are, first, that the human form of evolution involves the selective agency of the very consciousness whose characteristics are selected by the evolutionary mechanism; and second, that the process selects specifically for characteristics whose value depends not on meeting requirements laid down by the physical environment, but in satisfying the demands that consciousness imposes upon itself by virtue of its presence to itself."
Semantic complex - The interconnected system of interpretations of speech, experience, and reality that arises from the apodictic 'idea' of speech. It involves understanding speech as a representation of objective reality and interpreting experience through the lens of this semantic framework. Usage: "The semantic complex shapes the apodictic speaker's understanding of both language and the world around them."
Socio-cultural - Relating to the interplay between social structures and cultural practices within a society. The text argues that human consciousness and selfhood are socio-culturally generated and sustained, irreducible to individual organic functions. Usage: "Thus, conscious processes occur exclusively in individual organisms, but are generated and sustained only by the interaction of a multiplicity of individual human organisms."
Speech - In the context of this text, "speech" refers to a specific form of communication unique to humans, characterized by assertiveness and the ability to convey not just information but also the speaker's communicative nature. The text argues that speech is the key factor in the genesis and transmission of consciousness. Usage: "The transformation of the child’s native ability to communicate into the ability to do so assertively leads automatically, by virtue of the properties of speech, to the transformation of his ability to experience into the ability to do so consciously."
Superorganic - A term used to describe phenomena that are considered to be above or beyond the level of individual organisms, such as culture and society. The text critiques the concept of the "superorganic" as being inconsistent with the idea that social processes can only exist within the conscious experience of individuals. Usage: "Biologists concluded that human life had ‘superorganic’ (i.e., sociocultural) aspects, whose evolution did not depend on the natural selection of genes."
Synthetic theory - Refers to the dominant theory of evolution in the 20th century, which combined Darwin's concept of natural selection with the principles of genetics. The text critiques the synthetic theory for its inability to fully account for the emergence and role of culture in human evolution. Usage: "The important novelty in this trend of evolutionary thinking, so far as concerns us, was the gradual admission by biologists up to a point that a reductionistic concept of causality was not required by natural selection: nowadays most biologists say whatever they may mean by it that evolution is an emergent process."
Thematically - In a way that relates to themes or concepts. In this context, it refers to the idea that humans learn to speak in a way that conveys meaning and concepts. Usage: "When we, today, think of the efficacy and finality of our communicative or any other behaviour, we are already conscious and prepossessed of concepts of finality and efficacy acquired as we learned to speak thematically."
Thematic speech - A mode of speech that involves asserting a thesis (a statement or proposition) in relation to a theme (the subject or topic of the assertion). This allows for more complex and nuanced communication than non-thematic speech, which simply asserts a single idea without explicitly relating it to a specific subject. Usage: "Thematic speech emerged as a more sophisticated form of communication, enabling humans to express more complex ideas and relationships."
Verbal predication - The act of asserting a predicate (a quality, state, or action) in relation to a subject by means of a verb. This is a defining characteristic of apodictic speech and reflects the speaker's belief that the predicate is a property or action of the subject, as if emanating from it. Usage: "Verbal predication is the hallmark of apodictic speech, reflecting the speaker's tendency to attribute predicates to subjects as inherent properties or actions."
Vorverständnisse - Pre-understandings or presuppositions that shape our perception and interpretation of the world. Usage: "Thematic speech creates specific Vorverständnisse in the minds of its speakers."
This chapter explores the nature of consciousness and its role in defining what makes us human.
1. Two Ways to Study Human Nature
2. What Makes Us Human?
3. What is Consciousness?
4. The Foundation of Consciousness
5. How Consciousness Shapes Our Lives
6. Consciousness and the Body
7. The Power of Consciousness
8. The Fallibility of Consciousness
The Next Step:
The chapter ends by suggesting that the connection between consciousness and speech might be the key to understanding the origin of human nature. The next chapter will explore the nature of speech and its possible role in generating consciousness.
This chapter argues that speech is not just a way of sharing thoughts, but actually creates consciousness. It challenges the traditional view that speech simply expresses what we already know and feel.
This chapter concludes that speech is not just a tool for communication, but the very foundation of human consciousness and understanding. It is through speech that we create meaning, define ourselves, and make sense of the world around us.
This chapter proposes a new theory about how human beings became conscious. It argues that our ability to speak is the key to understanding how consciousness evolved.
This chapter explores how consciousness arose in humans. It argues that consciousness is not a direct product of natural selection, but rather a side effect of the development of speech.
The emergence of consciousness was a remarkable and accidental event. It transformed human life and gave rise to a new form of reproduction based on language and culture. However, this new form of consciousness also carries with it the potential for flaws, such as absent-mindedness, which continue to shape our understanding of ourselves and the world.
This chapter explores how the ability to think and talk about ourselves and the world, called "self-defining consciousness," came about.
Two Types of Language:
Apodictic Speech:
Depositional Speech:
Origins of Apodictic and Depositional Speech:
Cultural Implications:
Phonetic Writing and Absent-Mindedness:
This chapter explores how the development of self-awareness in humans led to two different ways of understanding the world, which the author calls "ontic" and "phenomenal." These different ways of thinking have shaped human cultures and history.
The author argues that the ontic way of thinking, while leading to great achievements, can also be harmful. It can lead to:
The author concludes that the phenomenal way of thinking offers a more balanced and healthy approach to life, emphasizing interconnectedness, personal responsibility, and the creation of values.
This chapter explores the idea that different types of human consciousness have developed throughout history, and how these differences might be important for the future of humanity.
Outline:
This text argues that communication, specifically speech, played a crucial role in the development of consciousness in humans. Here's a breakdown of the main points:
I. Communication is Unique:
II. Experiencing Cause and Effect:
III. Understanding Goals and Intentions:
IV. The Development of Consciousness:
In essence, the text suggests that our ability to communicate with each other, to share our thoughts and experiences, played a vital role in making us conscious beings.
This chapter introduces the author's thesis: that a philosophical approach is necessary to understand the origin and development of human nature, as traditional biological theories are inadequate. The author argues that the specifically human mode of life, characterized by consciousness and selfhood, cannot be explained solely through the natural selection of genes. They propose that speech plays a crucial role in generating consciousness and that a new evolutionary mechanism, based on the interaction between experience and speech, is needed to account for the emergence and development of human nature.
1. What is the author's main critique of traditional biological theories of human evolution?
The author argues that traditional biological theories, while successful in explaining the evolution of the human organism, fail to account for the emergence of the specifically human mode of life, characterized by consciousness and selfhood. They contend that reducing human life to its biochemical processes, as many biologists do, is inadequate and overlooks the qualitative differences between human and animal life. (pp. 3-13)
Notes: The author acknowledges the role of natural selection in shaping the human organism but emphasizes the need for a more nuanced approach to understanding the unique aspects of human nature.
2. How does the author's understanding of causality differ from the traditional scientific view?
The author criticizes the reductionistic concept of causality inherited by science from Scholasticism, which assumes that effects are "nothing but" their causes. They advocate for a phenomenological approach, prioritizing the immediate experience of reality as the starting point for investigation. This means recognizing the irreducibility of consciousness to its underlying biochemical processes, even though it is caused by them. (pp. 5-10, 14-15)
Notes: The author's critique of causality highlights the limitations of a purely mechanistic worldview and emphasizes the importance of subjective experience in understanding human nature.
3. What is the central hypothesis guiding the author's investigation into human evolution?
The author proposes that speech plays a crucial role in generating consciousness in the human individual. They hypothesize that learning to communicate experience in the specifically human way, through assertive communication, transforms the innate ability to experience into the acquired ability to experience consciously. This hypothesis implies that the acquisition of speech by the human species marked the origin of its capacity for conscious life. (pp. 16-18)
Notes: The author's hypothesis challenges the traditional view that consciousness precedes language and suggests a more dynamic relationship between language, experience, and consciousness.
4. According to the author, how does the emergence of speech lead to a new evolutionary mechanism for human beings?
The author argues that the emergence of speech introduces a new form of reproduction, distinct from the sexual reproduction of the human organism. They contend that the socio-cultural transmission of the ability to speak constitutes the inheritance mechanism for conscious life, as it endows each new generation with the potential for conscious experience. This new form of reproduction, coupled with the specifically human form of adjustment based on consciousness and selfhood, leads to a new evolutionary mechanism that is not reducible to the natural selection of genes. (pp. 19-21)
Notes: The author's concept of a new evolutionary mechanism highlights the importance of cultural transmission in shaping human nature and distinguishes it from the purely biological evolution of other species.
5. How does the author propose to reconstruct the prehistoric origin and development of speech and consciousness in the absence of palaeontological evidence?
The author suggests that, similar to astrophysicists theorizing about the origin of the universe, a careful analysis of the present state of human nature can reveal the conditions under which it could have emerged from its infrahuman origins. By examining the defining characteristics of human consciousness, selfhood, and speech, they aim to trace back the evolutionary pathway that led to their development. (pp. 22-23)
Notes: The author's methodological approach emphasizes the importance of a thorough understanding of the present state of human nature as the foundation for reconstructing its evolutionary history.
This chapter explores the nature of consciousness and its role in defining human specificity. The author argues that consciousness is not merely an organic function but an irreducible quality of human experience, characterized by self-presence. He further explores the consequences of consciousness for the human mode of life, including the sense of reality, selfhood, and the development of culture. Finally, he examines the relationship between consciousness and the human organism, proposing a monistic interpretation that avoids reductionism.
1. What is the author's main argument regarding the human specificity?
The author argues that the defining characteristic of human beings is the conscious quality of their experiential processes. He contends that everything that makes human life meaningful is either conscious experience or affects consciousness. While acknowledging the importance of the human organism, he emphasizes that it is essential only because of its bearing on conscious experience and selfhood (p. 33-34).
notes: A strong answer might also mention the author's critique of the traditional view that defines human specificity by comparing humans to animals, arguing that we should instead focus on what makes human nature immediately intelligible to itself (p. 32).
2. How does the author differentiate between the ontological and phenomenological approaches to studying human nature?
The author contrasts the ontological approach, which seeks to understand objects "in themselves" as if they were not being observed, with the phenomenological approach, which acknowledges the presence of the observer and the influence of the mind on experience. He argues that while the ontological approach has been successful in many areas of science, it is inadequate for studying human nature because it neglects the crucial role of the mind in shaping our understanding of reality (p. 27-33).
notes: An exceptional answer might delve into the author's critique of objectivity, highlighting its limitations in overcoming prejudices and its failure to account for the mind's inherent predispositions (p. 29-30).
3. What does the author mean by the "self-presence" of consciousness?
The author defines self-presence as the essential characteristic of consciousness, meaning that in every conscious experience, the act of experiencing is present to itself. He explains that we cannot be consciously aware of anything without simultaneously being aware that we are aware of it (p. 38-39). This self-presence allows us to differentiate between the object of experience and the act of experiencing, giving rise to the sense of reality and selfhood.
notes: A particularly insightful answer might connect the concept of self-presence to the author's discussion of non-conscious experience, explaining how the lack of self-presence in animal experience limits their understanding of reality and themselves (p. 41-44).
4. How does the author explain the relationship between consciousness and the human organism?
The author proposes a monistic interpretation of human nature, arguing that the human organism is the single element in man. However, he rejects reductionism, asserting that consciousness is not a function of the organism but an irreducible quality of its experiential functions. He compares consciousness to the "superbness" of a dancer's performance, which is a quality of the dancing but not reducible to the physical movements (p. 41). He suggests that consciousness arises from the complex way in which the human brain processes information, possibly through feedback loops in neural pathways (p. 69-70).
notes: A strong answer might also address the author's discussion of the "body-mind" relationship, explaining how the circular causality between consciousness and the organism can lead to misunderstandings about their interaction (p. 75-76).
5. What is the significance of the author's claim that consciousness is "assertive"?
The author argues that consciousness is not merely receptive but also assertive, meaning that it actively affirms the reality of the object being experienced. He explains that this assertiveness is not a verbal declaration but an inherent quality of conscious experience, whereby the experiencer acknowledges the object's informative role and "certifies" its reality (p. 77-79). This assertiveness is crucial for the development of the sense of reality, selfhood, and the human mode of life.
notes: An exceptional answer might connect the assertiveness of consciousness to the author's discussion of the potential for self-misinterpretation, explaining how the projection of assertiveness onto reality can lead to misunderstandings about the nature of consciousness and its relationship to the world (p. 85-86).
6. How does the author explain the potential for self-misinterpretation inherent in consciousness?
The author argues that the self-presence of consciousness, while enabling self-understanding, also contains the potential for self-misinterpretation. He suggests that this arises from the possibility of "deficient self-presence," where consciousness is not clearly and distinctly present to itself (p. 83-84). This deficiency can lead to misunderstandings about the nature of consciousness, such as the belief that it repeats reality rather than asserting it originally. He refers to this disability as "absent-mindedness" and argues that it is the basis of projection and other forms of self-alienation.
notes: A particularly insightful answer might connect the concept of absent-mindedness to the author's discussion of the relationship between consciousness and speech, suggesting that the development of language may have played a role in overcoming absent-mindedness and fostering a clearer understanding of consciousness (p. 87-88).
This chapter argues that speech, specifically its assertive nature, is the key to understanding the origin and development of human consciousness. The author contrasts this "syntactic" interpretation of speech with the traditional "semantic" view, which sees speech as merely a representation of pre-existing thoughts and experiences. He explores the two levels of assertiveness in speech (thematic and non-thematic) and their corresponding levels of consciousness (understanding and sensation). Finally, he examines the continuity between animal communication and human speech, and the implications of this view for understanding the interpretability of reality.
1. What is the central difference between the "semantic" and "syntactic" interpretations of speech?
The semantic interpretation views speech as a representation or repetition of pre-existing thoughts and experiences, originating in the mind's reception of information from reality. In contrast, the syntactic interpretation argues that speech is not merely representative but assertive, actively shaping and generating consciousness through its capacity to organize and interpret reality. (pp. 88-90, 94-96, 110-111)
Notes: A strong answer would clearly articulate the distinction between "repetition" and "assertion" in the context of speech and consciousness.
2. How does the author argue against the notion of "wordless conceptual thought"?
The author contends that the idea of wordless concepts mediating between experience and speech is both empirically unjustified and unnecessary. He argues that there is no evidence for the existence of such concepts and that the empirically justified alternative is that all thought occurs in the linguistic terms of audible or imagined speech. (pp. 110-111)
Notes: An exceptional answer might explore the historical reasons why the concept of wordless thought arose and how the syntactic interpretation renders it obsolete.
3. Explain the distinction between "thematic" and "non-thematic" speech and their corresponding levels of consciousness.
Non-thematic speech asserts an experience directly, with the context provided by the immediate reality. It corresponds to the level of conscious sensation, the immediate awareness of sensible objects. Thematic speech, on the other hand, involves asserting a thesis in relation to a theme, abstracting the experience from its immediate context and organizing it conceptually. This corresponds to the level of understanding, where experience is interpreted and made meaningful through narratives and propositions. (pp. 117-124)
Notes: A comprehensive answer would provide clear examples of both types of speech and their corresponding levels of consciousness.
4. How does the author explain the development of the "self" in relation to thematic speech?
The author argues that the "self" emerges as a consequence of the narrative capability of thematic speech. By organizing experiences into meaningful narratives, thematic speech allows the individual to situate themselves within a conceptually organized world and derive their own meaning from their self-perception as part of that world. The "I" becomes the narrator of the narrative, creating a sense of self-identity. (pp. 124-127)
Notes: A particularly insightful answer might explore the implications of this view for understanding the role of culture and social interaction in the development of the self.
5. What is the author's view on the interpretability of reality?
The author argues that reality is not inherently meaningful or intelligible in itself. Instead, it is interpretable only in the sense that it lends itself to interpretation by the conscious mind through the use of speech. The human mind, through its assertive and conceptualizing capacity, transposes reality into its own realm, making it meaningful and intelligible. (pp. 149-151)
Notes: A strong answer would address the potential objection that this view leads to subjectivism and explain how the author avoids this pitfall.
6. How does the author's conception of truth differ from the traditional "semantic" view?
The semantic view sees truth as an adequation of the mind to reality. The author, while acknowledging the importance of this relationship, argues that the defining element of truth lies in the self-presence of conscious experience and its ability to apprehend its own adequacy or inadequacy to reality. Truth, in this view, is not merely a factual conformity but an experience that furthers the self-presence and development of consciousness. (pp. 153-154)
Notes: An exceptional answer might explore the implications of this view for understanding the nature of error and the limitations of human knowledge.
Precis: This chapter proposes a novel theory of human evolution, arguing that consciousness is not genetically inherited but is generated and transmitted through speech. It criticizes existing biological theories for their reductionism and inability to account for the unique aspects of human consciousness and culture. The chapter then outlines how speech acts as a new form of heredity, enabling the reproduction of consciousness from one generation to the next, and discusses the implications of this theory for understanding human history and behavior.
1. What is the central argument of this chapter regarding the origin of human consciousness?
This chapter argues that human consciousness is not an innate, genetically inherited trait, but rather a skill acquired through the social interaction of speech. It posits that speech acts as a new form of heredity, transmitting the ability to experience consciously from one generation to the next. This is in contrast to biological theories that view consciousness as reducible to organic functions and transmitted genetically. (p. 157-158, 167-168)
2. How does the author criticize existing biological theories of human evolution?
The author criticizes Darwin's theory for assuming that human characteristics are governed by the same laws of inheritance as animals and for overlooking key differences between human and animal consciousness and communication. He argues that the synthetic theory, while acknowledging the irreducibility of socio-cultural processes, fails to explain how cultural evolution emerged from organic evolution and how it contributes to the evolution of human nature. He also criticizes sociobiology for its reductionist view that all human behavior is ultimately determined by genes. (p. 158-166)
3. What evidence does the author present to support the claim that consciousness is not innate but acquired through speech?
The author cites cases of "wolf children" and "feral men" who, despite having human-like organisms, exhibit no signs of consciousness, selfhood, or speech, suggesting that organic maturation alone is insufficient for human-level life. He also points out that ordinary infants, while possessing the potential for consciousness, do not manifest it until they learn to speak. (p. 169-170)
4. How does the author explain the process by which speech generates consciousness in the individual?
The author argues that the assertive nature of human communication, where individuals are aware that they are communicating, leads to a form of self-communication. This self-communication, in turn, makes one's own experience present to oneself, generating consciousness. He contrasts this with animal communication, where, despite the ability to experience, there is no awareness of the act of communication itself. (p. 168)
5. According to the author, how does the emergence of speech lead to a new form of heredity and a new evolutionary mechanism?
The author argues that speech, unlike animal communication, can transmit not just information but also the ability to experience consciously. This transmission of functional information acts as a new form of heredity, generating qualities of experience that were not genetically present in the recipient. This, in turn, establishes a new evolutionary mechanism, termed "self-selection," which operates on the level of consciousness and is driven by the need for self-identity and self-definition. (p. 175-180)
6. What are the implications of this theory for understanding human history and behavior?
The author suggests that this theory can provide a framework for understanding human history as a continuation of the evolution of consciousness through cultural means. It offers a way to interpret cultural changes, discern patterns in history, and understand the emergence of both positive and negative aspects of human behavior. (p. 182-183)
Notes:
This chapter explores the evolutionary transition from animal communication to human consciousness, arguing that speech played a crucial role in this development. The author proposes a multi-stage process, starting with the perception of communicative causality, leading to the emergence of speech, thought, and finally, immediate consciousness. The chapter also discusses the self-reproductive nature of consciousness and the socio-cultural matrix that sustains it, concluding with an analysis of the origins and implications of absent-mindedness.
1. What distinguishes human communication from animal communication, according to the author?
Human communication, characterized as "speech," differs from animal communication in its assertiveness. This assertiveness arises from the speaker's intention to communicate, their awareness of the communicative effects of their signals, and their ability to integrate goal-seeking and signal-making into a single act (p. 194). While animals communicate to achieve ends, they do so without experiencing the connection between their signals and the desired effects.
2. The author describes two phases in the transition from vocal communication to speech. What are they, and what distinguishes them?
The first phase involves the communicator's perception of their signals as causes of communicative effects. This awareness allows them to use signals intentionally, marking a departure from purely instinctive animal communication (p. 195). The second phase involves the communicator's experience of their signals as embodying and fulfilling their purpose of communicating. This deeper understanding of communicative finality leads to a more intensive assertiveness in their signal-making (p. 196).
3. How does the author explain the emergence of the ability to perceive communicative efficacy in early hominids?
The author suggests that early hominids learned to perceive the causal relationship between their signals and the communicand's response through a process of mutual identification. By exchanging roles as communicator and communicand, they could identify their own vocal signals with those of others, realizing that the same signals elicited similar responses in both parties (p. 199). This realization allowed them to grasp the shared meaning of signals and their efficacy in producing communicative effects.
4. According to the author, what role did proprioception play in the emergence of speech?
Proprioception, the ability to experience oneself and one's behavior from within, played a crucial role in the second phase of speech development. By integrating proprioceptive awareness of their striving to communicate with their prior experience of signals as causally related to communicative effects, early hominids could perceive their signal-making as embodying their desire to achieve a communicative effect (p. 202). This realization marked the transition from mere signal-making to signal-asserting, giving rise to true speech.
5. The author claims that language precedes speech, both ontogenetically and phylogenetically. Explain this claim.
Ontogenetically, individuals learn to speak within a pre-existing language system used by a community that already knows how to speak. Phylogenetically, the author argues that speech emerged from a pre-existing system of non-assertive vocal signs used by pre-humans (p. 205). In both cases, the ability to speak arises from the assertive processing of a pre-existing language, highlighting the crucial role of language in the development of speech.
6. What advantage did vocal communication offer over visual communication in the emergence of speech, according to the author?
The author suggests that the lack of proprioception in vocal sound-making facilitated the emergence of speech. Since vocal signals are perceived primarily through hearing, both the speaker and the listener experience them in the same way (p. 204). This shared mode of perception made it easier for early hominids to identify the meaning heard by the communicand with the meaning they heard in their own vocal signals, a crucial step in grasping the causal relationship between signal and communicative effect.
7. How does the author describe the emergence of thought from speech?
Thought, defined as the ability to speak inaudibly to oneself, emerged from the realization that one could speak aloud but only to oneself (p. 209). This realization, facilitated by the practice of speaking aloud in the absence of an apparent communicand, led to the discovery of purely imaginary speech. This internalization of speech allowed for faster and freer communication, enhancing the rudimentary self-presence of speech and paving the way for the development of immediate consciousness.
8. What distinguishes the self-presence of mediate consciousness (proto-consciousness) from the self-presence of immediate consciousness?
Mediate consciousness, generated by speech, involves the coincidence of the contents of an experience as signified by speech and the contents of the same experience as experienced by hearing oneself speak (p. 207). This self-presence is mediated by the act of vocalization and hearing. Immediate consciousness, on the other hand, involves the direct coincidence of the contents of an act of experience and the act of experiencing those contents, achieved through the single act of conscious perception (p. 207). This self-presence is immediate and unmediated by any external act.
9. How did thought contribute to the emergence of immediate consciousness, according to the author?
Thought, with its more intense self-presence than speech, created the possibility of experiencing assertively without first signifying the experience in thought or speech (p. 213). By speaking and thinking about their present experience, early humans gradually learned to experience it assertively without the need for linguistic mediation. This process, driven by the interplay between experience and communication, led to the emergence of immediate consciousness.
10. The author draws an analogy between sexual reproduction and the self-reproduction of consciousness. Explain this analogy.
Both sexual reproduction and the self-reproduction of consciousness involve the transmission of information that generates a new entity similar to the generator. In sexual reproduction, genetic information is transmitted through chromosomal exchange, creating offspring with unique genetic configurations (p. 209). In the self-reproduction of consciousness, generative information is transmitted through significative communication, specifically speech, generating consciousness in the recipient (p. 211). Both processes perpetuate a specific form of life while allowing for variation and evolution.
notes: This question requires a good understanding of the author's analogy and the specific mechanisms involved in both types of reproduction.
11. What is the socio-cultural matrix, and what is its role in the self-reproduction of consciousness?
The socio-cultural matrix is the organized network of conscious states within a human community, constituted by the speech and interactions of its members (p. 215). It serves as the "womb of consciousness," transmitting the ability to speak and generating consciousness in new individuals. This matrix perpetuates and develops human nature through the ongoing exchange of significative and generative information, shaping the conscious experience of individuals and the evolution of consciousness itself.
12. How does the author explain the origin of absent-mindedness?
Absent-mindedness, characterized by defective self-presence, is attributed to defective assertiveness in speech, stemming from a confused perception of communicative efficacy and finality in early hominids (p. 217). This confusion arose from their inability to fully grasp the connection between their signal-making and the communicative effects produced, leading to a flawed understanding of their own assertiveness and a tendency to experience their speech as a repetition of a pre-existing reality.
notes: This question requires a nuanced understanding of the author's argument about the link between perception, assertiveness, and absent-mindedness.
13. What are the implications of absent-mindedness for human self-interpretation and the conduct of human life?
Absent-mindedness, as a fundamental flaw in human consciousness, has profound implications for how we understand ourselves and navigate the world. It leads to a distorted perception of our own agency and a tendency to misinterpret our experiences, shaping our beliefs, values, and actions in ways that we may not fully comprehend (p. 220). This inherent flaw in our conscious experience poses a significant challenge to achieving a clear and accurate understanding of ourselves and our place in the world.
This chapter argues that the evolution of human nature has passed through two distinct stages: the first marked by the development of non-thematic speech and immediate consciousness, and the second by the emergence of thematic speech, narrative thought, and self-defining consciousness. The chapter explores the origin of thematic speech, the emergence of self-definition, the human need for self-definition, and the institutions and limits of self-definition.
1. What distinguishes thematic speech from non-thematic speech, and what advantages does thematic speech offer for human life?
Thematic speech, unlike non-thematic speech, organizes information in a more intricate way by relating a thesis to a theme in accordance with a preconceived category. This allows for a higher level of assertiveness and enables the speaker to interpret reality in relation to consciousness itself. Thematic speech can be purely formal, factual, or fictional. While purely formal thematic speech is not directly referable back to reality, factual thematic speech refers to reality in its actuality and concreteness. Fictional thematic speech, on the other hand, refers back to reality indirectly through prior translation into factual or non-thematic assertions. This hypothetical quality of fictional speech allows humans to plan for the future, learn from the past, evaluate alternative realities, and construct abstract worlds removed from concreteness, individuality, and time, ultimately enabling them to manage their relationship with reality. (pp. 227-231)
Notes: A strong answer might include examples of each type of thematic speech and discuss the potential dangers of living in imaginary worlds.
2. How does Dewart explain the emergence of thematic speech from non-thematic speech?
Dewart argues that thematic speech emerged as a result of the mutual involution of experience and communication. As non-thematic speech rendered the speaker's experience increasingly self-present, the speaker became conscious of his own speech, particularly its communicative function. This awareness allowed him to thematize his experience of reality. Further intensification of self-presence led to heightened awareness of the assertive function of speech, enabling the speaker to convert an experienced reality into a thesis. This process, driven by self-selection rather than natural selection, culminated in the emergence of thematic speech. (pp. 232-236)
Notes: A particularly insightful answer might connect this explanation to the concept of self-selection introduced in previous chapters.
3. What is the relationship between thematic speech and the emergence of self-definition?
Thematic speech, with its ability to organize information categorically, provides the means for consciousness to define itself. By relating theses and themes in categorical patterns, the speaker can interpret both the world and himself in relation to his own conscious experience. This interpretative capacity, enabled by thematic speech, allows consciousness to move beyond merely experiencing the world to understanding it and, in turn, understanding itself. Thus, thematic speech facilitates the emergence of self-defining consciousness. (pp. 238-239)
Notes: A strong answer might elaborate on the role of categories in shaping self-definition and provide examples of how they are used in interpreting reality.
4. What is the human need for self-definition, and how does it relate to the concept of self-preservation?
Unlike inanimate objects or infrahuman organisms, human consciousness comes into being without a pre-existing identity. This lack of inherent identity creates a vital need for human beings to construct their own meaningful self-definition. This need for self-identity becomes the primary human motive, replacing the drive for self-preservation found in other organisms. While humans still possess the instinct for survival, it becomes subordinate to the need for experiencing their identity as meaningful. This need for self-definition explains why humans can deliberately choose to end their lives, even for seemingly irrational reasons. (pp. 244-247)
Notes: An exceptional answer might explore the implications of this need for self-definition for various aspects of human behavior, such as the pursuit of knowledge, the creation of art, and the search for meaning in life.
5. How does culture function as an institution of self-definition, and what are the limits of self-definition within a culture?
Thematic speech enables humans to make assertions about themselves and each other, leading to the development of cultural institutions that define and regulate human life. These institutions transmit self- and world-understanding to new generations through both explicit and implicit assertions. While secondary and tertiary institutions, such as economic, political, and religious systems, perpetuate specific narratives and interpretations, the primary institution of self-definition is thematic speech itself. The form of thematic speech, with its embedded categorical concepts, creates non-conscious presuppositions about reality and causality that constrain the individual's self-definition within the limits of his culture's fundamental assumptions. (pp. 247-254)
Notes: A strong answer might discuss the tension between individual self-definition and the influence of cultural institutions, as well as the potential for change and variation within these limits.
6. How does the emergence of self-defining consciousness represent a significant development in the evolution of life?
The emergence of self-defining consciousness marks a crucial step in the evolution of life's self-orientation. While all life exhibits purposive efficient causality aimed at self-preservation, consciousness brings this purposiveness to awareness, transforming it into deliberate self-direction or will. Thematic speech and self-definition further enhance this self-direction by providing the capacity for self-governance and freedom. This integration of efficacy and finality allows human beings to consciously manage their own self-preservation and create their own identity, making them truly free selves. (pp. 255-258)
Notes: An exceptional answer might connect this development to the broader philosophical implications of consciousness and its role in shaping the human condition.
Precis: This chapter explores the concept of thematic speech and its role in the development of self-defining consciousness. It argues that thematic speech exists in two variants: apodictic and depositional. Apodictic speech, characterized by verbal predication and the use of "to be," reflects an absent-minded consciousness that projects its assertiveness onto reality. Depositional speech, lacking "to be" and relying on juxtaposition of thesis and theme, indicates a present-minded consciousness aware of its own assertive nature. The chapter further explores the grammatical and cultural implications of these two variants, suggesting that they lead to distinct types of mentality and culture.
1. What are the key grammatical differences between apodictic and depositional speech, and how do these differences reflect the underlying 'idea' of speech in each variant?
Apodictic speech is characterized by verbal predication, requiring a verb to relate a thesis to a theme. This is exemplified by the mandatory use of "to be" or analogous copulas, even when the predicate does not signify an action. This grammatical structure reflects the apodictic speaker's assumption that the subject is the ground or cause of the predicate, and that speech mirrors the objective relationships between realities. Depositional speech, on the other hand, lacks "to be" and relies on the juxtaposition of thesis and theme to convey the assertion. This reflects the depositional speaker's understanding of speech as a direct expression of their own experience, rather than a repetition of reality's assertion. (pp. 266-273)
2. How does the concept of temporality differ between apodictic and depositional speakers, and what are the grammatical manifestations of these differences?
Apodictic speakers, projecting their own temporality onto reality, assume that objects inherently possess temporal characteristics. This is reflected in the mandatory inclusion of a temporal index in every verbal predicate. Depositional speakers, recognizing that temporality is a relationship between objects and consciousness, do not inherently include temporal markers in their assertions. They specify time only when necessary to convey the temporal relationship of the experience being communicated. (pp. 279-283)
3. How does the chapter explain the emergence of verbal predication in apodictic speech, specifically focusing on the role of the verb "to be"?
The chapter proposes that "to be" evolved from a non-verbal word signifying attributability, such as the Sanskrit "as-" which denoted belonging, resulting, or tending towards. This word, originally used to express the relationship between realities, became grammaticalized as a verb due to the apodictic speaker's need to signify that reality itself was responsible for the relationship being mirrored in speech. (pp. 285-287)
4. The chapter draws a parallel between the development of verbal predication in Indo-European languages and Sumerian. What are the key similarities and differences in their respective processes, and what do these reveal about the nature of apodictic speech?
Both Indo-European languages and Sumerian developed verbal predication, employing a verb "to be" to signify the relationship between subject and predicate. While the specific words and grammatical structures differ, both reflect the apodictic speaker's projection of assertiveness onto reality. The Sumerian "me," meaning "to command," suggests an even stronger degree of absent-mindedness than the Indo-European "to be," as it attributes imperative force to reality itself. (pp. 292-295)
5. The chapter suggests that absent-mindedness, while a "human disvalue," might have contributed to a significant technological advancement. What is this advancement, and how does the chapter explain the connection between absent-mindedness and this development?
The chapter argues that the Sumerians' absent-mindedness facilitated their transition from ideographic to phonetic writing. This is because phonetic writing, unlike ideographic writing, requires the reader to obey the phonetic instructions embedded in the signs, effectively allowing the absent writer to "speak" through the written word. This aligns with the apodictic speaker's tendency to view speech as a repetition of reality's assertion, making them more receptive to the concept of written signs as carriers of an external voice. (pp. 299-300)
Notes:
This chapter explores the divergent cultural orientations that arose from the two forms of self-defining consciousness: ontic and phenomenal. It examines how these forms of consciousness, shaped by the presuppositions embedded in their respective languages (apodictic and depositional), lead to contrasting interpretations of reality, efficient causality, and final causality. The chapter argues that these differences have profound implications for understanding human cultural evolution and the contemporary cultural configuration of the species.
1. What are the key distinctions between the ontic and phenomenal concepts of reality?
The ontic concept of reality, stemming from absent-mindedness and a difficulty in simultaneously focusing on both the act and object of consciousness, views reality as an absolute, objectified into something that things possess "in themselves" (p. 309). This leads to substantiality being the paradigm of reality, with transient events merely accruing to more solid and enduring entities (p. 309). Consequently, the ontic mind perceives itself as having a secondary, dependent reality, leading to the paradoxical self-derealization of consciousness and the yearning for an ultimate, transcendent reality beyond experience (pp. 310-311). In contrast, the phenomenal consciousness, not projecting its assertiveness onto reality, perceives reality as a relationship of "otherness-to" that binds and delimits entities (p. 309). It recognizes the uniform reality of all things within the world, including the so-called "gods" who are seen as fellow inhabitants rather than transcendent beings (p. 314). This understanding is reflected in the etymology of terms for reality in depositional languages, emphasizing "presence to," "availability," or "that which one may come across" (p. 315).
Notes: A strong answer might delve into the specific examples provided in the text, such as the Sumerian concept of "me," the Greek "Logos," the Hebrew "Yahweh," and the Indonesian terms "wujud," "keadaan," and "kenjataan," to illustrate the contrasting interpretations of reality.
2. How do the ontic and phenomenal forms of consciousness differ in their understanding of efficient causality?
The ontic consciousness, projecting its own experience of necessary and total determination onto the world, interprets efficient causality as absolute and universal necessitation (p. 329). It assumes that effects follow necessarily from their causes and are reducible to them, leading to the belief in fate and the rule of power (pp. 330-331). This is reflected in the ontic concept of magic, where words are believed to possess inherent efficacy independent of the speaker (p. 330). The phenomenal consciousness, on the other hand, views efficient causality as a factual relationship, recognizing the possibility of novelty in effects and the absence of compulsion (p. 332). It understands causality as a way of thinking about the world, applicable when warranted by experience but not necessarily universal or absolute (p. 332). This is evident in the phenomenal understanding of magic, where words are seen as a means for the speaker to exert their will upon reality, based on the perceived consubstantiality of all things (p. 331).
Notes: An exceptional answer might explore the implications of these contrasting views for understanding historical events and cultural phenomena, such as the Greek concept of "physis," the biblical belief in predestination, and the Indonesian use of "belum" to express the open-endedness of reality.
3. What are the key differences between the ontic and phenomenal conceptions of final causality and morality?
The ontic consciousness, projecting its final causality onto objects, assumes that values inhere in objects and that things have inherent purposes (p. 345). This leads to the belief that the world and human existence have a preordained purpose, often interpreted as a "divine Plan" or a "natural law" (p. 345). It also shapes the ontic understanding of morality, where moral values are seen as objective and pre-existing, with moral responsibility consisting in choosing or rejecting these values (p. 347). This results in a morality of obedience, where right conduct is defined by conformity to external norms, whether divine commands, natural law, or social conventions (p. 348). The phenomenal consciousness, recognizing that values are created by the valuer, understands final causality as the conscious and intentional creation of values (p. 344). It sees human existence as meaningful and rewarding even without a preordained purpose, with values being created by consciousness for itself (p. 346). This understanding extends to morality, where right conduct is defined by autonomy, with the morally mature person being one who does "what his heart desires" after conscientious deliberation (p. 350). This leads to a situational and contextual ethic, where moral decisions are made based on the specific circumstances and the individual's understanding of their moral responsibility.
Notes: A particularly insightful answer might analyze the implications of these contrasting views for understanding the role of freedom, responsibility, and the origin of evil in human life. It could also explore the cultural manifestations of these differences, such as the ontic preoccupation with "salvation" and the phenomenal emphasis on living in harmony with the world.
Precis: This chapter explores the evolutionary implications of the two variant forms of human consciousness, the ontic and the phenomenal, arising from the apodictic and depositional forms of thematic speech, respectively. It argues that while the ontic mind poses dangers due to its inherent neurotic tendencies, the interaction between the two forms offers a unique opportunity for self-awareness and conscious self-selection, potentially leading to a higher level of consciousness.
1. What is the evolutionary significance of the racial division of mankind, as explained by the author's theory of speech generating consciousness?
The author argues that the two forms of human consciousness, ontic and phenomenal, stemming from different forms of thematic speech, represent variations in the integration of efficient and final causality. This means they differ in their ability to manage their power to change reality in a way that fulfills the inherent purposes of human life. These differences are analogous to variations in survival value, as defective integration can lead to cultural neurosis and pose a threat to conscious life itself (pp. 370-371).
2. How does the author differentiate between the Aztec practice of human sacrifice and similar acts committed by ontic cultures?
While acknowledging the horror of Aztec human sacrifice, the author argues that it stemmed from a phenomenal consciousness that experiences itself as the sole source of its assertions and thus feels ultimately accountable for its actions. This can lead to an overwhelming sense of responsibility and, in the Aztec case, a belief in the necessity of nourishing the sun with human life. On the other hand, ontic cultures commit atrocities in the name of abstract ideals like God, Freedom, or Nation, driven by arrogance and self-righteousness (pp. 371-372).
3. According to the author, how does the emergence of thematic speech in two variant forms contribute to the evolution of consciousness?
The author compares the emergence of thematic speech to the development of sexual reproduction in organic evolution. Both introduce variations that are crucial for selection and evolution. The two forms of thematic speech, apodictic and depositional, create different presuppositions about self and world, leading to distinct forms of consciousness. The interaction between these forms, through cultural exchange, can potentially lead to awareness of these presuppositions and conscious self-selection, furthering the evolution of consciousness (pp. 374-377).
4. What are the obstacles to achieving the "conscious self-selection" made possible by the interaction between the two forms of consciousness?
The author identifies two main obstacles: ethnocentricity and acculturation. Ethnocentricity leads cultures to interpret alien ideas through their own presuppositions, filtering out differences and hindering genuine understanding. Acculturation, on the other hand, can lead to the adoption of another culture's self-definition, either voluntarily or through coercion, suppressing or replacing the original culture's presuppositions. Both extremes prevent the necessary "miscegenation" of cultures that could lead to conscious self-awareness (pp. 378-380).
5. What is the author's ultimate assessment of the future of the human species in light of the evolutionary possibilities presented by the two forms of consciousness?
The author refrains from making a prediction, emphasizing that human evolution is still subject to factors beyond conscious control. However, he presents two clear alternatives: either conscious life will evolve towards greater self-definition and autonomy, or it will disappear. The interaction between the two forms of consciousness offers a unique opportunity for progress, but the outcome ultimately depends on humanity's ability to overcome the obstacles of ethnocentricity and acculturation (pp. 380-381).
Notes:
This appendix argues that communication, particularly speech, was crucial for the emergence of consciousness in hominids. It posits that the unique properties of communication allowed hominids to experience their own reality, efficacy, and finality, which are essential for developing consciousness.
1. The text claims that hominids could not have discovered their own reality, efficacy, and finality through activities other than communication. What is the reasoning behind this claim?
The text argues that experiencing reality, efficacy, and finality requires conceptualization, which was unavailable to pre-human hominids. These are categories of understanding that cannot be derived solely from sensory information. While hominids could engage in activities like tool-making, these actions did not offer the opportunity to experience the cause-and-effect relationship in a way that could lead to the conceptualization of efficacy and finality. Communication, on the other hand, allows the communicator to experience the direct impact of their actions on another being, the communicand. This creates a feedback loop that enables the hominid to perceive the relationship between their actions and the resulting effect, paving the way for the development of these crucial concepts. (p. 371-372)
Notes: A strong answer will emphasize the role of conceptualization and the unique feedback loop present in communication that allows for the experience of cause and effect.
2. The text draws a parallel between the development of an "idea" of speech in a child and the emergence of speech in hominids. What is the significance of this comparison?
The text uses the example of a child learning to speak to illustrate the process of discovering communicative efficacy and finality. While a child today has the advantage of learning from others, the underlying principle remains the same: the child must ultimately discover these concepts within themselves. Similarly, hominids had to discover these concepts without external guidance. The comparison highlights that the inherent properties of communication itself, rather than external instruction, make this discovery possible. Both the child and the evolving hominid species encounter a situation where the ability to use signs to communicate must arise from an internal realization of the potential for such action. (p. 371-372)
Notes: A good answer will focus on the shared challenge of internally discovering the potential for communication and the role of communication's inherent properties in facilitating this discovery.
3. How does the text explain the ability of communication to reveal its own efficacy and finality to the communicator?
The text argues that communication allows the communicator to experience both the cause (their signaling behavior) and the effect (the conveyance of meaning to the communicand). This is possible because the communicator can empathize with the communicand, understanding the effect of their communication from the receiver's perspective. This ability to perceive both sides of the communicative act enables the communicator to experience the efficient causality of their actions. Furthermore, communication allows the communicator to differentiate between the act of signaling and the intent behind it, highlighting the final causality, the purpose driving the communication. (p. 373-374)
Notes: A strong answer will explain the role of empathy in experiencing efficient causality and the distinction between signaling and intent in understanding final causality.
4. The text contrasts communication with flint-chipping to illustrate why the latter couldn't lead to the experience of efficacy and finality. What is the key difference between these two activities?
The text argues that the crucial difference lies in the object of the action. In flint-chipping, the hominid acts upon an inanimate object, the flint. While the hominid can observe the changes in the flint, they cannot empathize with it or experience the effect of their actions from the flint's perspective. This limits the understanding of the cause-and-effect relationship. In contrast, communication involves acting upon another being, the communicand. The communicator can empathize with the communicand, experiencing the effect of their communication from the receiver's perspective. This shared experience is crucial for understanding both efficient and final causality. (p. 374-375)
Notes: A good answer will emphasize the difference between acting upon an inanimate object and acting upon another being, highlighting the role of empathy in the latter.
5. How does the text connect the experience of efficacy and finality in communication to the experience of reality as such?
The text argues that the ability to experience one's own efficacy and finality through communication lays the groundwork for experiencing reality as such. While any animal can experience its own organism and activities, this does not equate to experiencing reality as real. Communication, however, introduces the element of assertiveness. The communicator is not merely acting but is actively conveying meaning and intent. This assertiveness, coupled with the experience of efficacy and finality, allows the communicator to experience their actions and themselves as real and significant within the world. (p. 375-376)
Notes: A strong answer will connect the assertiveness inherent in communication to the development of a sense of self and the experience of reality as real.