Introduction

I have compiled these notes whilst revising for the Oracle 1Z0-061 Exam - Oracle Database 12c: SQL Fundamentals. They should also be relevant to the 1Z0-051 - Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals exam. Revision was most conducted using the excellent and highly recommended "OCA Oracle Database 12c SQL Fundamentals I Exam Guide" by Roopesh Ramklass.

I have aimed to include include in these notes common "gotchas" and easy to forget functionality rather than documenting everything required for the exam. This can then be used as a quick refresher before walking into the exam.

The content is broken up into sections with each heading mapping to the relevant Oracle 1Z0-061 exam topics.

Describe the features of Oracle Database 12c

The DML (data manipulation language) commands are: SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and MERGE.
The DDL (data definition language) commands are: CREATE, ALTER, DROP, RENAME, TRUNCATE and COMMENT.
The DCL (data control language) command are: GRANT and REVOKE.
The TCL (transaction control language) commands are: COMMIT, ROLLBACK and SAVEPOINT.

Retrieving Data using the SQL SELECT Statement

Concatenation with NULL is OK.
```
'Mike'||NULL||'Leonard' = 'MikeLeonard'
```
Expressions with NULL always result in NULL.
```
1 + 2 * NULL + 3 = NULL
```

Operator precedences are shown in the following list, from highest precedence to the lowest. Operators that are shown together on a line have the same precedence.

INTERVAL
!
- (unary minus), ~ (unary bit inversion)
^
*, /, DIV, %, MOD
-, +
&
|
= (comparison), <=>, >=, >, <=, <, <>, !=, IS, LIKE, REGEXP, IN
BETWEEN, CASE, WHEN, THEN, ELSE
NOT
AND, &&
XOR
OR, ||

Restricting and Sorting Data

BETWEEN is inclusive.

Using Single-Row Functions to Customize Output

TRIM by default trims whitespace.
To TRIM other characters use the following syntax.
```
TRIM('#' from '#MYSTRING#')
```

LEADING, TRAILING or BOTH can be specified in TRIM to control where the characters are trimmed from.

TRIM(TRAILING '#' from '#MYSTRING#')
TRIM(LEADING '#' from '#MYSTRING#')
TRIM(BOTH '#' from '#MYSTRING#') -- This is the default.

MONTHS_BETWEEN works backwards, that is a positive number is returned when the first argument is greater than the second.
```
MONTHS_BETWEEN('01-JAN-15', '01-FEB-15') = -1
MONTHS_BETWEEN('01-FEB-15', '01-JAN-15') = 1
```
If INSTR does not find the target string 0 is returned.
```
INSTR('a', 'b') = 0
```
You can ROUND to nearest whole numbers (least significant digit is 0).
```
ROUND(1584.73, -3) = 2000
ROUND(11, -1) = 10
```

TRUNC of a NUMBER works like rounding down.

TRUNC(1256.56, 1) = 1256.5
ROUND(1256.56, 1) = 1256.6

TRUNC(1256.56, -2) = 1200
ROUND(1256.56, -2) = 1300

LPAD/RPAD take an argument specifying the resultant length not how much to append:.
```
LPAD('A', 4, '.') = '...A'
RPAD('A', 4, '.') = 'A...'
```
NULLIF returns the first argument if the two arguments don't match else it returns NULL.
```
NULLIF('a', 'a') = NULL
NULLIF('a', 'b') = 'a'
```
Single row numeric functions always return a numeric value. These are the only group of functions that do this.

Using Conversion Functions and Conditional Expressions

Format masks behave differently when operating on numbers or characters.

TO_NUMBER(1234.49, 999999.9) -- Raises an exception ORA_01722: invalid number
TO_CHAR(1234.49, '999999.9') = 1234.5 -- Note the rounding

The default Oracle data format mask is DD-MON-RR.
,/. and D/G style number separators cannot be mixed in the same format mask.

Format masks

Numeric Format masks

Format Element	Description	Format	Number	Character Result
9	Numeric width	9999	12	12
0	Displays leading zeros	09999	0012	00012
.	Position of decimal point	09999.999	030.40	00030.400
D	Decimal separator position (period is default)	09999D999	030.40	00030.400
,	Position of commas symbol	09999,999	03040	00003,040
G	Group separator position (comma is default)	09999G999	03040	00003,040
$	Dollar sign	$099999	03040	$003040
L	Local currency	L099999	03040	GBP003040 if nls_currency is set to GBP
MI	Position of minus sign for negatives	99999MI	-3040	3040-
PR	Wrap negatives in parentheses	99999PR	-3040	<3040>
EEEE	Scientific notation	99.99999EEEE	121.976	1.21976E+02
U	nls_dual_currency	U099999	03040	CAD003040 if nls_dual_currency is set to CAD
V	Multiplies by 10n times (n is the number of nines after V)	9999V99	3040	304000
S	+ or - sign is prefixed	S999999	3040	+3040

Date Format Masks

Format Element	Description	Result
Y	Last digit of year	5
YY	Last two digits of year	75
YYY	Last three digits of year	975
YYYY	Four-digit year	1975
RR	Two-digit year	75
YEAR	Case-sensitive English spelling of year	NINETEEN SEVENTY-FIVE
MM	Two-digit month	06
MON	Three-letter abbreviation of month	JUN
MONTH	Case-sensitive English spelling of month	JUNE
D	Day of week	2
DD	Two-digit day of month	02
DDD	Day of the year	153
DY	Three-letter abbreviation of day	MON
DAY	Case-senstitive English spelling of day	MONDAY

Less Commonly Used Date Format Masks

Format Element	Description	Result
W	Week of month	4
WW	Week of year	39
Q	Quarter of year	3
CC	Century	10
S preceding CC, YYYY or YEAR	If date is BC, a minus sign is prefixed to result	-10, -1000 or -ONE THOUSAND
IYYY,IYY,IY,I	ISO dates of four, three, two and one digit, respectively	1000, 000, 00, 0
BC, AD, B.C. and A.D.	BC or AD and periodspaced B.C. or A.D.	BC
J	Julian day - days since 31 December 4713 BC	1356075
IW	ISO standard week (1 to 53)	39
RM	Roman numeral month	IX

Date Form Masks for Time Components

Format Element	Description	Result
AM, PM, A.M. and P.M.	Meridian indicators	PM
HH, HH12 and HH24	Hour of day, 1-2 hours, and 0-23 hours	09, 09, 21
MI	Minute (0-59)	35
SS	Second (0-59)	13
SSSSS	Seconds past midnight (0-86399)	77713

Miscellaneous Date Format Masks

Format Element	Description	Result
-/.,?#!	Punctuation marks: 'MM.YY'	09.08
"any character literal"	Character literals: '"Week" W "of" Month'	Week 2 of September
TH	Positional or ordinal text: 'DDth "of" Month'	12th of September
SP	Spelled out number: 'MmSP Month Yyyysp'	Nine September Two Thousand Eight
THSP or SPTH	Spelled out positional or ordinal number: 'hh24SpTh'	Fourteenth

Reporting Aggregated Data Using the Group Functions

COUNT(ALL *) is default and the same as COUNT(*).
Group functions ignore NULLs.
As group functions ignore NULLs beware that COUNT(DISTINCT colname) will not count any rows with NULL in colname.
Group functions can only be nested two levels deep.
HAVING can come before or after the GROUP BY.
GROUP BY and DISTINCT can, in some cases, be used to create the same results. The following are equivialent.
```
SELECT comm
FROM scott.emp
GROUP BY comm;

SELECT DISTINCT comm
FROM scott.emp;
```

Displaying Data From Multiple Tables Using Joins

NATURAL JOIN joins tables using columns with identical names.
A NATURAL JOIN becomes a cartesian (cross) join when no matching column names are found.
NATURAL JOIN syntax:
```
SELECT *
FROM emp
NATURAL JOIN dept
```

Oracle join syntax:

INNER JOIN:

SELECT *
FROM emp, dept
WHERE emp.deptno = dept.deptno

LEFT OUTER JOIN:

SELECT *
FROM emp, dept
WHERE emp.deptno = dept.deptno (+)

RIGHT OUTER JOIN:

SELECT *
FROM emp, dept
WHERE emp.deptno (+) = dept.deptno

USING syntax

SELECT *
FROM emp
JOIN dept USING(deptno)

Queries with the USING syntax cannot alias the column(s) used in the USING(...) clause.

SELECT d.deptno
FROM emp e
JOIN dept d USING(deptno)

-- Results in ORA-25154: column part of USING clause cannot have qualifier.

USING, NATURAL JOIN and ON are mutually exclusive and these JOIN types cannot be mixed.

Using Subqueries to Solve Queries

Subqueries

Subqueries can be nested an unlimited depth in a FROM.
Subqueries can "only" be nested 255 levels deep in a WHERE.
Subqueries cannot be used in a GROUP BY or ORDER BY.

Use a set operator to combine multiple queries into a single query

UNION, MINUS and INTERSECT all remove duplicates and order the results. UNION ALL does neither of these.
ORDER BY can only be used at the end of a compound (UNION, MINUS, INTERSECT) query and not in each individual part. If you put an ORDER BY for an individual query you will get ORA-00933: SQL command not properly ended.

Managing Tables using DML statements

Oracle is ACID compliant:
- A tomicity: All or nothing.
- C onsistency: Within a given statement the data manipulated is from the same starting point and not modified part way through.
- I solated: Until committed, changed data cannot be seen by others.
- D urable: Once committed the changes are never lost.
If an error occurs during a statement the work of the statement is undone but the work of all other statements in the same transactions remain but uncommitted.
Whilst sometimes categorized as DML, TRUNCATE is DDL and cannot be rolled back.

Insert rows into a table

The VALUES keyword is not used in an INSERT ... AS SELECT ... statement.

Control transactions

Transactions are started implicitly with DML.
Transactions ended with COMMIT or ROLLBACK.
COMMIT is fast, ROLLBACK is slow (can possibly take longer to ROLLBACK that it originally did to do the work).
Create a SAVEPOINT with SAVEPOINT name;.
ROLLBACK a SAVEPOINT with ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT name;.
You cannot ROLLBACK to a non-existant SAVEPOINT. One that either has not been created or has been ended via a ROLLBACK or COMMIT.

Introduction to Data Definition Language

Object names...
- must be no longer than 30 characters;
- must start with a letter (A-Z);
- must include only A-Z, 0-9, _, $ or #.
- must be upper case (even if entered lower case they will be converted to upper)''
- may include additional characters and be lower case if enclosed with quotes ("). However, once this is done the object must always be referred to using quotes.

Objects names are case sensitive.

CREATE TABLE test1 (
  ...
);

CREATE TABLE "test1" (
  ...
);

-- Results in two tables, one called TEST1 and another called test1.

Object names (schema.name) must be unique with their namespace.
Indexes, constraints and procedures have their own namespace so they can share a name with tables, views, sequences and private synonyms even within the same schema. This is because you cannot reference these directly with a SELECT statement.
DDL will fail if there is another active transaction against the object being altered.
It is impossible to DROP a table if it is the subject of a FOREIGN KEY from another table.
Oracle 12c includes a recycle bin that is enabled by default. Dropped objects can be recovered from here as long as they haven't been dropped with the PURGE option.
You cannot TRUNCATE a table that has foreign key values pointing to it.

Describe the data types that are available for columns

The following datatypes are important to know for the exam:
- VARCHAR2 Variable-length character data from 1 byte to 4000 bytes if MAX_STRING_SIZE=STANDARD or 32767 bytes in MAX_STRING_SIZE=EXTENDED. The database is stored in the database character set.
- CHAR Fixed-length character data, from 1 byte to 2000 bytes, in the database character set. If the data is not the length of the column then it will be padded with spaces.
- NUMBER Numeric data, for which you can specify precision and scale. The precision can range from 1 to 38, the scale can range from -84 to 127.
- FLOAT A subtype of the NUMBER datatype having a precision defined. A FLOAT value is represented internally as NUMBER. The precision can range from 1 to 126 binary digits. A FLOAT value requires from 1 to 22 bytes.
- DATE The is either the length zero, if the column is empty or 7 bytes. All DATE data includes century, year, month, day, hour, minute and second.
- TIMESTAMP This is length zero if the column is empty, or up to 11 bytes, depending on the precision specified. Similar to DATE but with precision of up to 9 decimal places for the seconds, 6 places by default.
- TIMESTAMP WITH TIMEZONE Like TIMESTAMP but the data is stored with a record kept of the time zone to which it refers. The length may be up to 13 bytes, depending on precision. This data type lets Oracle determine the difference between two time by normalizing them to UTA, even if the times are for different time zones.
- TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIMEZONE Like TIMESTAMP, but the data is normalize to the database time zone on saving. When retrieved, it is normalized to the time zone of the user processing it.
- INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH Used for recording a period in years and months between two DATEs or TIMESTAMPs.
- INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND Used for recording a period in days and seconds between two DATEs or TIMESTAMPs.
- RAW Variable-length binary data, from 1 byte to 4000 bytes if MAX_STRING_SIZE=STANDARD or 32767 bytes if MAX_STRING_SIZE=EXTENDED. Unlike the CHAR and VARCHAR2 data types, RAW data is not converted by Oracle Net from the databases character set to the user process's character set on SELECT or the other way on INSERT.
- LONG Character data in the database character set, up to 2gb. All the functionality of LONG is provided by CLOB; LONGs should not be used in a modern database, and if your database has any columns of this type they should be converted to CLOB. There can only be one LONG column in a table.
- LONG RAW Like LONG, but binary data that will not be converted by Oracle Net. Any LONG RAW columns should be converted to BLOBs.
- CLOB Character data stored in the database character set, size effectively unlimited: (4gb - 1) multiplied by the database block size.
- BLOB Like CLOB but binary data that will not undergo character set conversion by Oracle Net.
- BFILE A locator pointing to a file stored on the operating system of the database server. The size of the files is limited to 4gb.
- ROWID A value coded in base64 that is the pointer to the location of a row in a table. Encrypted within it is the exact physical address. ROWID is an Oracle proprietary data type, not visible unless specifically selected.
- BINARY_FLOAT A 32-bit, single precision floating-point number. Each BINARY_FLOAT value requires 5 bytes, including a length byte.
- BINARY_DOUBLE A 64-bit, double precision floating-point number datatype. Each BINARY_DOUBLE value requires 9 bytes, including a length byte.
VARCHAR2, NUMBER and DATE required a detailed understanding.

NUMBER with a negative scale will round:

CREATE TABLE numtest (
  id NUMBER(12, -4)
);

INSERT INTO numtest VALUES (12);
INSERT INTO numtest VALUES (12345);
INSERT INTO numtest VALUES (56789);
INSERT INTO numtest VALUES (99999);

SELECT *
FROM numtest;

--          ID
-- -----------
--           0
--       10000
--       60000
--      100000

Create a simple table

The syntax for columns in a CREATE TABLE statement is:

  column_name DATA_TYPE [NOT NULL] [UNIQUE | PRIMARY KEY]

CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT ... copies a tables structure including NOT NULL and CHECK constraints. PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE and FOREIGN KEYs are not copied.

Various ALTER TABLE options

Adding columns
```
ALTER TABLE emp
ADD (job_id NUMBER);
```

Modifying columns

ALTER TABLE emp
MODIFY (comm NUMBER(4,2) DEFAULT 0.05);

Dropping columns
```
ALTER TABLE emp
DROP COLUMN comm;
```

Marking columns as unused

ALTER TABLE emp
SET UNUSED COLUMN job_id;

Renaming columns

ALTER TABLE emp
RENAME COLUMN hiredate TO recruited

Marking the table as read-only
```
ALTER TABLE emp
READ ONLY;
```

Explain how constraints are created at the time of table creation

UNIQUE constraints ignore NULL values.
PRIMARY KEY is a combination of UNIQUE and NOT NULL.
FOREING KEY constraints must reference columns of a UNIQUE or PRIMARY KEY constraint in the referenced table.
DELETEing rows in a FOREIGN KEY referenced table is not allowed unless the constraint is specified with one of the following:
- ON DELETE CASCADE Also delete the rows referencing the row to be deleted.
- ON DELETE SET NULL Find any rows referencing the row to be deleted and make NULL the columns in the FOREIGN KEY.

Exams Gotchas

The following notes are not strictly Oracle Database related but should be remembered when taking the exam.

When provided with details of two or more tables (such as via a DESC) be sure to examine the column names carefully and check for any columns in both tables with the same name, especially if a NATURAL JOIN is used anywhere in the questions. Be 100% certain of the columns the NATURAL JOIN will be operating on.
When dealing with data conversions be sure to consider the NLS_DATE_FORMAT setting and whether the question relies on this or has possibly changed it.
Ensure that the datatypes are correct in functions. For example, the data types of all arguments to COALESCE must be the same. Do not rely on implicit casting with COALESCE either.

switchtrue/oracle_1Z0-061_notes.md