Anarchism wikitext

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{{Redirect|Anarchist|the fictional character|Anarchist (comics)}}{{Redirect|Anarchists}}{{about|the political philosophy|the medical condition|Anorchism}}{{Anarchism sidebar}}{{Libertarianism sidebar}}'''Anarchism''' is generally defined as the [[political philosophy]] which holds the [[state (polity)|state]] to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful,<ref name="definition">{{Cite journal|last=Malatesta|first=Errico|title=Towards Anarchism|journal=MAN!|publisher=International Group of San Francisco|location=Los Angeles|oclc=3930443|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm|authorlink=Errico Malatesta}}{{Cite journal|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home/|title=Working for The Man |journal=[[The Globe and Mail]] |accessdate=2008-04-14 |last=Agrell |first=Siri |date=2007-05-14}}{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285|title=Anarchism|year=2006|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service|accessdate=2006-08-29}}{{Cite journal|year=2005|title=Anarchism|journal=The Shorter [[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|page=14|quote=Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable.}}The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy:{{Cite book| last = Mclaughlin | first = Paul | title = Anarchism and Authority | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-7546-6196-2 |page=59}}{{Cite book| last = Johnston | first = R. | title = The Dictionary of Human Geography | publisher = Blackwell Publishers | location = Cambridge | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-631-20561-6 |page=24}}</ref><ref name=slevin>Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics''. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.</ref> or alternatively as opposing [[authority]] in the conduct of human relations.<ref name="iaf-ifa.org">"The [[International of Anarchist Federations|IAF - IFA]] fights for : the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical, political, social, religious, cultural or sexual."[http://www.iaf-ifa.org/principles/english.html "Principles of The [[International of Anarchist Federations]]"]</ref><ref>"Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations." [[Emma Goldman]]. "What it Really Stands for Anarchy" in ''[[Anarchism and Other Essays]]''.</ref><ref>Individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker defined anarchism as opposition to authority as follows "They found that they must turn either to the right or to the left, — follow either the path of Authority or the path of Liberty. Marx went one way; Warren and Proudhon the other. Thus were born State Socialism and Anarchism...Authority, takes many shapes, but, broadly speaking, her enemies divide themselves into three classes: first, those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress, opposing her openly, avowedly, sincerely, consistently, universally; second, those who profess to believe in her as a means of progress, but who accept her only so f ar as they think she will subserve their own selfish interests, denying her and her blessings to the rest of the world; third, those who distrust her as a means of progress, believing in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon, violating, and outraging her. These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met in almost every sphere of thought and human activity. Good representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the Russian autocracy; of the second, in the Protestant Church and the Manchester school of politics and political economy; of the third, in the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of the socialism off Karl Marg." [[Benjamin Tucker]]. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Benjamin_Tucker__Individual_Liberty.html ''Individual Liberty.'']</ref><ref name="Ward 1966">{{cite web|url=http://www.panarchy.org/ward/organization.1966.html|last=Ward|first=Colin|year=1966|title=Anarchism as a Theory of Organization|accessdate=1 March 2010}}</ref><ref>Anarchist historian [[George Woodcock]] report of [[Mikhail Bakunin]]´s anti-authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non-state forms of authority as follows: "All anarchists deny authority; many of them fight against it." (pg. 9)...Bakunin did not convert the League's central committee to his full program, but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Berne Congress of September 1868, demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State."</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Brown |first=L. Susan |chapter=Anarchism as a Political Philosophy of Existential Individualism: Implications for Feminism |title=The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism and Anarchism |publisher=Black Rose Books Ltd. Publishing |year= 2002 |page=106}}</ref> Proponents of anarchism (known as "anarchists") advocate [[stateless society|stateless societies]] based on non-[[Hierarchy|hierarchical]]<ref name="iaf-ifa.org"/><ref>"That is why Anarchy, when it works to destroy authority in all its aspects, when it demands the abrogation of laws and the abolition of the mechanism that serves to impose them, when it refuses all hierarchical organization and preaches free agreement — at the same time strives to maintain and enlarge the precious kernel of social customs without which no human or animal society can exist." [[Peter Kropotkin]]. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__Anarchism__its_philosophy_and_ideal.html Anarchism: its philosophy and ideal]</ref><ref>"anarchists are opposed to irrational (e.g., illegitimate) authority, in other words, hierarchy — hierarchy being the institutionalisation of authority within a society." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/The_Anarchist_FAQ_Editorial_Collective__An_Anarchist_FAQ__03_17_.html#toc2 "B.1 Why are anarchists against authority and hierarchy?" in [[An Anarchist FAQ]]]</ref> [[voluntary association]]s.<ref>"ANARCHISM, a social philosophy that rejects authoritarian government and maintains that voluntary institutions are best suited to express man’s natural social tendencies." George Woodcock. "Anarchism" at The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref><ref>"In a society developed on these lines, the voluntary associations which already now begin to cover all the fields of human activity would take a still greater extension so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its functions." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin___Anarchism__from_the_Encyclopaedia_Britannica.html [[Peter Kropotkin]]. “Anarchism” from the Encyclopaedia Britannica]</ref>==Overview==[[File:Anarchist placard, 2011.jpg|thumb|An anarchist placard being carried at a protest rally in London, November 2011.]]There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sylvan |first=Richard |chapter=Anarchism |title=A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy |editors=Goodwin, Robert E. and Pettit |publisher=Philip. Blackwell Publishing |year=1995 |page=231}}</ref> [[Anarchist schools of thought]] can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism.<ref name=slevin/> Strains of anarchism have been divided into the categories of [[social anarchism|social]] and [[individualist anarchism]] or similar dual classifications.<ref name="black dict">[[Geoffrey Ostergaard|Ostergaard, Geoffrey]]. "Anarchism". ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.</ref><ref name=socind>{{Cite book|authorlink=Peter Kropotkin |last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |title=Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |year=2002 |page=5|isbn=0-486-41955-X}}{{Cite journal|author=R.B. Fowler|title=The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought|year=1972|journal=Western Political Quarterly|volume=25|issue=4|pages=738–752|doi=10.2307/446800|publisher=University of Utah|jstor=446800}}</ref> Anarchism is often considered to be a radical [[left-wing]] ideology,<ref name=brooks>{{Cite book|quote=Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today |last=Brooks |first=Frank H. |year=1994 |title=The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908) |publisher=Transaction Publishers |page=xi|isbn=1-56000-132-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Joseph Kahn|title= Anarchism, the Creed That Won't Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement |year=2000|journal=[[The New York Times]]|issue=5 August}}{{Cite journal|author=Colin Moynihan |title=Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway|year=2007|journal=New York Times|issue=16 April}}</ref> and much of [[anarchist economics]] and [[anarchist law|anarchist legal philosophy]] reflect [[anti-statism|anti-statist]] interpretations of [[anarcho-communism|communism]], [[collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalism]] or [[participatory economics]]. However, anarchism has always included an [[Individualist anarchism|individualist strain]] supporting a [[market economy]] and [[private property]], or morally unrestrained [[egoist anarchism|egoism]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stringham |first=Edward |chapter= |title=Anarchy and the Law. The Political Economy of Choice.  |ssrn=1768172 |editors=Stringham, Edward |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=2007 |page=720}}</ref><ref>[[Jan Narveson|Narveson, Jan]] (2002). [http://books.google.es/books?id=a6hBXZOepB4C&pg=PA186&dq=free-market+anarchism&as_brr=3 Respecting Persons in Theory and Practice. Chapter 11: Anarchist's Case]. "To see this, of course, we must expound the moral outlook underlying anarchism. To do this we must first make an important distinction between two general options in anarchist theory [...] The two are what we may call, respectively, the socialist versus the free-market, or capitalist, versions."</ref><ref name="tormey">Tormey, Simon, Anti-Capitalism, A Beginner's Guide, Oneworld Publications, 2004, pp. 118–119.</ref> Some individualist anarchists are also [[socialist]]s or [[communist]]s while some anarcho-communists are also individualists or egoists<ref>"This stance puts him squarely in the libertarian socialist tradition and, unsurprisingly, [[Benjamin Tucker|(Benjamin) Tucker]] referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to be "Anarchistic socialism." "''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]''by Various Authors</ref><ref>"Because revolution is the fire of our will and a need of our solitary minds; it is an obligation of the libertarian aristocracy. To create new ethical values. To create new aesthetic values. To communalize material wealth. To individualize spiritual wealth." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Renzo_Novatore__Toward_the_Creative_Nothing.html [[Renzo Novatore]]. ''Toward the Creative Nothing'']</ref> while some anarcho-communists are also individualists.<ref name="bobblack">[[Post-left anarchy|Post-left]] anarcho-communist [[Bob Black]] after analysing [[Insurrectionary anarchism|insurrectionary]] anarcho-communist [[Luigi Galleani]]'s view on anarcho-communism went as far as saying that "communism is the final fulfillment of [[individualism]].... The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both.... Subjectivity is also objective: the individual really is subjective. It is nonsense to speak of 'emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual'.... You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a 'method of individualization'. It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Bob_Black__Nightmares_of_Reason.html#toc22 Bob Black. ''Nightmares of Reason''.]</ref><ref name="dwardmac.pitzer.edu">"Modern Communists are more individualistic than Stirner. To them, not merely religion, morality, family and State are spooks, but property also is no more than a spook, in whose name the individual is enslaved - and how enslaved!...Communism thus creates a basis for the liberty and Eigenheit of the individual. I am a Communist because I am an Individualist. Fully as heartily the Communists concur with Stirner when he puts the word take in place of demand - that leads to the dissolution of property, to expropriation. Individualism and Communism go hand in hand."[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/goldman/ME/mev2n3.html#142 [[Max Baginski]]. "Stirner: The Ego and His Own" on ''[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth]]''. Vol. 2. No. 3 MAY, 1907]</ref>Anarchism as a [[social movement]] has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. The central tendency of anarchism as a mass social movement has been represented by [[Anarchist communism|anarcho-communism]] and [[anarcho-syndicalism]], with [[individualist anarchism]] being primarily a literary phenomenon<ref>[[Alexandre Skirda|Skirda, Alexandre]]. ''Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968''. AK Press, 2002, p. 191.</ref> which nevertheless did have an impact on the bigger currents<ref>Catalan historian Xavier Diez reports that the Spanish individualist anarchist press was widely read by members of [[anarcho-communist]] groups and by members of the [[anarcho-syndicalist]] trade union [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]. There were also the cases of prominent individualist anarchists such as [[Federico Urales]] and [[Miguel Gimenez Igualada]] who were members of the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and J. Elizalde who was a founding member and first secretary of the [[Iberian Anarchist Federation]]. Xavier Diez. ''El anarquismo individualista en España: 1923-1938.'' ISBN 978-84-96044-87-6</ref> and individualists also participated in large anarchist organizations.<ref>Within the [[Synthesis anarchism|synthesist]] anarchist organization, the [[Fédération Anarchiste]], there existed an individualist anarchist tendency alongside anarcho-communist and anarchosyndicalist currents. Individualist anarchists participating inside the [[Fédération Anarchiste]] included [[Charles-Auguste Bontemps]], Georges Vincey and André Arru. [http://public.federation-anarchiste.org/IMG/pdf/Cedric_Guerin_Histoire_du_mvt_libertaire_1950_1970.pdf "Pensée et action des anarchistes en France : 1950-1970" by Cédric GUÉRIN]</ref><ref>In Italy in 1945, during the Founding Congress of the [[Italian Anarchist Federation]], there was a group of individualist anarchists led by Cesare Zaccaria who was an important anarchist of the time.[http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/73n6nh Cesare Zaccaria (19 August 1897-October 1961) by Pier Carlo Masini and Paul Sharkey]</ref> Most anarchists [[non-aggression principle|oppose all forms of aggression]], supporting [[self-defense]] or [[non-violence]] ([[anarcho-pacifism]]),<ref name="ppu.org.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html#anarch%20and%20violence |title="Resiting the Nation State, the pacifist and anarchist tradition" by Geoffrey Ostergaard |publisher=Ppu.org.uk |date=1945-08-06 |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref><ref name="Anarchism 1962">[[George Woodcock]]. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (1962)</ref> while others have supported the use of some [[coercion|coercive]] measures, including violent [[revolution]] and [[propaganda of the deed]], on the path to an anarchist society.<ref>Fowler, R.B. "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought." ''The Western Political Quarterly'', Vol. 25, No. 4. (December, 1972), pp. 743–744.</ref>==Etymology and terminology=={{Related articles|Anarchist terminology}}The term ''[[wikt:anarchism|anarchism]]'' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄναρχος, ''anarchos'', meaning "without rulers",<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchy Anarchy]. [[Merriam-Webster]] online.</ref><ref>[[Henry Liddell|Liddell, Henry George]], & [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Scott, Robert]], "[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]"[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%237439].</ref> from the prefix ἀν- (''an-'', "without") + ἀρχή (''archê'', "sovereignty, realm, magistracy")<ref>{{Cite book|last=Liddell |first=Henry George |coauthors=Scott, Robert |title=A Greek-English Lexicon |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315894|isbn=0-19-910205-8}}</ref> + -ισμός (''-ismos'', from the [[Suffix (linguistics)|suffix]] -ιζειν, ''-izein'' "-izing"). There is some ambiguity with the use of the terms "[[libertarianism]]" and "libertarian" in writings about anarchism. Since the 1890s from France,<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Short History of Anarchism |last=Nettlau |first=Max |authorlink=Max Nettlau |year=1996 |publisher=Freedom Press |isbn=0-900384-89-1 |page=162}}</ref> the term "libertarianism" has often been used as a synonym for anarchism<ref>"At the end of the century in France, Sebastien Faure took up a word originated in 1858 by one Joseph Dejacque to make it the title of a journal, Le Libertaire. Today the terms “anarchist” and “libertarian” have become interchangeable." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Daniel_Guerin__Anarchism__From_Theory_to_Practice.html#toc2 [[Daniel Guérin]]. ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'']</ref> and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States;<ref>Russell, Dean. [http://www.boogieonline.com/revolution/politics/name.html ''Who is a Libertarian?''], [[Foundation for Economic Education]], "Ideas on Liberty," May, 1955.</ref> its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States.<ref>* Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62* Goodway, David. Anarchists Seed Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4* MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with [[Dwight Macdonald]]. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82* Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv* Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126* [[George Woodcock|Woodcock, George]]. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press, 2004. (Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10)* [[Alexandre Skirda|Skirda, Alexandre]]. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183.* Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, page 9.</ref> Accordingly, "[[libertarian socialism]]" is sometimes used as a synonym for [[socialist anarchism]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Perlin |first=Terry M. |title=Contemporary Anarchism |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1979 |page=40|isbn=0-87855-097-6}}</ref><ref>Noam Chomsky, Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739.</ref> to distinguish it from "individualist libertarianism" (individualist anarchism). On the other hand, some use "[[libertarianism]]" to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as "[[libertarian anarchism]]".<ref>Morris, Christopher. 1992. ''An Essay on the Modern State''. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. (Using "libertarian anarchism" synonymously with "individualist anarchism" when referring to individualist anarchism that supports a [[market economy|market society]]).</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Burton |first=Daniel C. |title= Libertarian anarchism  |url= http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/polin/polin168.pdf |publisher=[[Libertarian Alliance]] |year= |page=}}</ref>==History=={{Main|History of anarchism}}===Origins===[[File:WilliamGodwin.jpg|left|thumb|[[William Godwin]], "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work".<ref name="EB1910" />]]<!--Anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque, the first person to use the term "libertarian" in a political sense and self-proclaimed advocate of libertarianism, needs to be added here. His work and stances on anarchism are very relevant to this particular section of the article. Additionally, his criticisms of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's mutualism are very relevant here.-->The earliest<ref name="LVM">[http://mises.org/daily/2054#1.10 Taoism in Ancient China]</ref> anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of [[Taoism|Taoist]] philosopher [[Laozi]],<ref name="EB1910">Peter Kropotkin, [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/kropotkin/britanniaanarchy.html "Anarchism"], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' 1910.</ref> and in later centuries by [[Zhuangzi]] and Bao Jingyan.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-one-from-anarchy-to-anarchism-300ce-1939/ Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE-1939) « Robert Graham’s Anarchism Weblog<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Zhuangzi´s philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist<ref>"The priority of dao over tiannature:sky underwrites the themes of dependency and relativism that pervade the Zhuangzi and ultimately the skepticism, the open-minded toleration and the political anarchism (or disinterest in political activity or involvement)." [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ "Taoism" at the Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref><ref>"Doing nothing [wu wei] is the famous Daoist concept for natural action, action in accord with Dao, action in which we freely follow our own way and allow other beings to do likewise. Zhuangzi, the great anarchic Daoist sage, compared it to “riding on the wind.” [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Max_Cafard__Zen_Anarchy.html Max Cafard. "Zen Anarchy"]</ref><ref>"Zhuangzi helps us discover an anarchistic epistemology and sensibility. He describes a state in which “you are open to everything you see and hear, and allow this to act through you.”[45] Part of wuwei, doing without doing, is “knowing without knowing,” knowing as being open to the things known, rather than conquering and possessing the objects of knowledge. This means not imposing our prejudices (whether our own personal ones, our culture's, or those built into the human mind) on the Ten Thousand Things." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Max_Cafard__The_Surre_gion_alist_Manifesto_and_Other_Writings.html#toc24 Max Cafard. ''The Surre(gion)alist Manifesto and Other Writings'']</ref><ref>Zhuangzi, was referred to by [[Murray Rothbard]] as "the first anarchist in the history of human thought"."[http://mises.org/daily/2054#1.10 Taoism in Ancient China]</ref><ref>"The next group of interpreters have also become incorporated into the extant version of the text. They are the school of anarchistically inclined philosophers, that Graham identifies as a “Primitivist” and a school of “Yangists,” chapters 8 to 11, and 28 to 31. These thinkers appear to have been profoundly influenced by the Laozi, and also by the thought of the first and last of the Inner Chapters: “Wandering Beyond,” and “Responding to Emperors and Kings.” There are also possible signs of influence from Yang Zhu, whose concern was to protect and cultivate one’s inner life-source. These chapters combine the anarchistic ideals of a simple life close to nature that can be found in the Laozi with the practices that lead to the cultivation and nurturing of life. " [http://www.iep.utm.edu/zhuangzi/ "Zhuangzi (Chuang-Tzu, 369—298 BCE)" at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref> [[Zhuangzi]] wrote, "A petty thief is put in jail. A great [[wikt:brigand|brigand]] becomes a ruler of a Nation,".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf|format=PDF|title=Concepts of the role of intellectuals in social change toward laissez faire|author=[[Murray Rothbard]]|accessdate=2008-12-28}}</ref> [[Diogenes of Sinope]] and the [[Cynic]]s, their contemporary [[Zeno of Citium]], the founder of [[Stoicism]], also introduced similar topics.<ref name="EB1910" /><ref>{{iep|c/cynics.htm|Cynics|Julie Piering}}</ref> [[Jesus]] is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchist]] tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that "The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ and ... the first anarchist society was that of the apostles."<ref>Cited in George Woodcock, ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (Cleveland: Meridian Books, 1962), p. 38.</ref> Such a distinction reverberates subversive religious conceptions like the aforementioned seemingly anarchistic Taoist teachings and that of other anti-authoritarian religious traditions creating a complex relationship regarding the question as to whether or not [[Anarchism and religion|anarchism and religion are compatible]]. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful [[idolatry]].<ref name=CritiqueofViolence>{{cite web|first=Alexandre |last=Christoyannopoulos |url=http://www.psa.ac.uk/journals/pdf/5/2010/1338_1226.pdf |title=A Christian Anarchist Critique of Violence: From Turning the Other Cheek to a Rejection of the State |pages= |date = March 2010|publisher= Political Studies Association}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel |last=Christoyannopoulos |first=Alexandre |authorlink=Alexandre Christoyannopoulos |coauthors= |year=2010 |publisher=Imprint Academic |location=Exeter |isbn= |page=254 |pages= |url= |accessdate= |quote=The state as idolatry}}</ref>The radical [[Protestant Christianity|Protestant christian]] [[Gerrard Winstanley]] and his group the [[Diggers]] are cited by various authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England.<ref>"Anarchists have regarded the secular revolt of the Diggers, or True Levellers, in seventeenth-century England led by Gerrard Winstanley as a source of pride. Winstanley, deeming that property is corrupting, opposed clericalism, political power and privilege. It is economic inequality, he believed, that produces crime and misery. He championed a primitive communalism based on the pure teachings of God as comprehended through reason." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Kenneth_C._Wenzer__Godwin_s_Place_in_the_Anarchist_Tradition___a_Bicentennial_Tribute.html Kenneth C. Wenzer. "Godwin's Place in the Anarchist Tradition — a Bicentennial Tribute"]</ref><ref>"It was in these conditions of class struggle that, among a whole cluster of radical groups such as the Fifth Monarchy Men, the [[Levellers]] and the Ranters, there emerged perhaps the first real proto-anarchists, the Diggers, who like the classical 19th century anarchists identified political and economic power and who believed that a social, rather than political revolution was necessary for the establishment of justice. Gerrard Winstanley, the Diggers' leader, made an identification with the word of God and the principle of reason, an equivalent philosophy to that found in [[Tolstoy]]'s ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]''." Marlow. "Anarchism and Christianity"</ref><ref>"Although Proudhon was the first writer to call himself an anarchist, at least two predecessors outlined systems that contain all the basic elements of anarchism. The first was Gerrard Winstanley (1609-c. 1660), a linen draper who led the small movement of the Diggers during the Commonwealth. Winstanley and his followers protested in the name of a radical Christianity against the economic distress that followed the Civil War and against the inequality that the grandees of the New Model Army seemed intent on preserving. In 1649-1650 the Diggers squatted on stretches of common land in southern England and attempted to set up communities based on work on the land and the sharing of goods." George Woodcock Anarchism The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> The term "anarchist" first entered the English language in 1642, during the [[English Civil War]], as a [[Pejorative|term of abuse]], used by [[Cavalier|Royalists]] against their [[Roundhead]] opponents.<ref name=bbc/> By the time of the [[French Revolution]] some, such as the ''[[Enragés]]'', began to use the term positively,<ref>Sheehan, Sean. ''Anarchism'', London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85.</ref> in opposition to [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]] centralisation of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as [[oxymoron]]ic.<ref name=bbc/> By the turn of the 19th century, the English word "anarchism" had lost its initial negative connotation.<ref name=bbc/>Modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], particularly [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.<ref name=Encarta>"Anarchism", ''[[Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia'' 2006 (UK version).</ref> From this climate [[William Godwin]] developed what many consider the first expression of [[anarchist schools of thought|modern anarchist thought]].<ref name="godwinsep" /> Godwin was, according to [[Peter Kropotkin]], "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work",<ref name="EB1910" /> while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early [[Edmund Burke]].<ref>Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to [[Edmund Burke]]'s '' [[A Vindication of Natural Society]]''. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's ''Vindication of Natural Society''; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence..." – footnote, Ch. 2 ''[[Political Justice]]'' by William Godwin.</ref> [[Benjamin Tucker]] instead credits [[Josiah Warren]], an American who promoted stateless and [[voluntary community|voluntary communities]] where all goods and services were [[privatization|private]], with being "the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism."<ref>''Liberty'' XIV (December, 1900:1).</ref> The first to describe himself as an anarchist was [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]],<ref name=bbc>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20061207.shtml "Anarchism"], [[BBC Radio 4]] program, [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]], Thursday 7 December 2006. Hosted by [[Melvyn Bragg]] of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at [[University of Westminster]], [[Ruth Kinna]], Senior Lecturer in Politics at [[Loughborough University]], and [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]], philosopher and historian.</ref> a French philosopher and politician, which led some to call him the founder of modern anarchist theory.<ref>Daniel Guerin, ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'' (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970).</ref>The anarcho-communist [[Joseph Déjacque]] was the first person to describe himself as "[[libertarian socialism|libertarian]]".<ref name="Dejacque">Joseph Déjacque, [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in [[French language|French]])</ref> Unlike [[Proudhon]], he argued that, "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature."<ref>"l'Echange", article in ''Le Libertaire'' no 6, September 21, 1858, New York. [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/libertaire/n06/lib01.htm]</ref>===The First International==={{Main|International Workingmen's Association}}[[Image:Bakuninfull.jpg|thumb|Collectivist anarchist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] opposed the [[Marxist]] aim of [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] in favour of universal rebellion, and allied himself with the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists.<ref name=bbc/>]]In Europe, harsh reaction followed the [[revolutions of 1848]], during which ten countries had experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist uprisings. After most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, conservative elements took advantage of the divided groups of socialists, anarchists, liberals, and nationalists, to prevent further revolt.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Breunig |first=Charles |title=The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789–1850 |year=1977 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |location=New York, N.Y |isbn=0-393-09143-0 }}</ref> In 1864 the [[International Workingmen's Association]] (sometimes called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]],<ref>{{Cite book| last = Blin | first = Arnaud | title = The History of Terrorism | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-520-24709-4 |page=116}}</ref> [[Blanquism|Blanquists]], [[Philadelphes]], English trade unionists, [[socialists]] and [[social democrats]].Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organization. [[Karl Marx]] became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualists]], opposed Marx's [[state socialism]], advocating political [[abstentionism]] and small property holdings.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Dodson | first = Edward | title = The Discovery of First Principles: Volume 2 | publisher = Authorhouse | page=312 | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-595-24912-4 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=harv | location = London | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=187}}</ref>In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the [[League of Peace and Freedom]] (LPF), Russian revolutionary [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his [[collectivist anarchism|collectivist anarchist]] associates joined the First International (which had decided not to get involved with the LPF).<ref>{{Cite book| last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = Routledge and Kegan Paul | location = London | year = 1980 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=304}}</ref> They allied themselves with the [[federalist]] socialist sections of the International,<ref>{{Cite book| last = Bak | first = Jǹos | title = Liberty and Socialism | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location = Lanham | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-8476-7680-3 |page=236}}</ref> who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property.At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Engel | first = Barbara | title = Mothers and Daughters | publisher = Northwestern University Press | location = Evanston | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-8101-1740-1 |page=140}}</ref> Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[centralism|centralist]] and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the [[ruling class]] they had fought against.<ref name="bakuninmarx" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bakunin|first=Mikhail|authorlink=Mikhail Bakunin|origyear=1873|year=1991|title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-36973-8}}</ref>In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]], where Bakunin and [[James Guillaume]] were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New York. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the [[Anarchist St. Imier International|St. Imier Congress]], adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.<ref name=Graham-05>Graham, Robert '[http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm ''Anarchism''] (Montreal: Black Rose Books 2005) ISBN 1-55164-251-4.</ref>===Organised labour==={{Main|Anarcho-syndicalism|International Workers' Association|Anarchism in Spain|Spanish Revolution}}The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of labor."<ref>Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas'', Vol. 1, p. 100 [http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm]</ref> In 1886, the [[Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions]] (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by which the [[Eight-hour day|eight-hour work day]] would become standard.<ref name=foner/>In response, unions across the [[United States]] prepared a [[general strike]] in support of the event.<ref name=foner/> On 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when [[strikebreaker]]s attempted to cross the picket line, and two workers died when police opened fire upon the crowd.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Avrich |first=Paul |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |year=1984 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=0-691-00600-8 |page=190}}</ref> The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=193 |isbn=0-691-04711-1 }}</ref> A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odmp.org/officer/3972-patrolman-mathias-j.-degan |title=Patrolman Mathias J. Degan |accessdate=2008-01-19 |publisher=The Officer Down Memorial Page, Inc }}</ref> In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.<ref>''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 27 June 1886, quoted in {{Cite book|last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=209 |isbn=0-691-04711-1 }}</ref> Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.<ref name='the bomb'>{{cite web|url=http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm |title=Act II: Let Your Tragedy Be Enacted Here |accessdate=2008-01-19 |year=2000 |work=The Dramas of Haymarket |publisher=Chicago Historical Society }}</ref> Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labour movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the [[Haymarket affair]], and was a setback for the labour movement and the struggle for the eight hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organise for the eight hour day was made.The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Foner |title=May Day |page=42 |isbn=0-7178-0624-3 }}</ref> Although it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the following year the celebration of [[International Workers' Day]] on [[May Day]] had become firmly established as an international worker's holiday.<ref name=foner>{{Cite book| last = Foner | first = Philip Sheldon | title = May day: a short history of the international workers' holiday, 1886–1986 | publisher = International Publishers | location = New York | year = 1986 | isbn = 0-7178-0624-3 |page=56}}</ref>[[Image:ChicagoAnarchists.jpg|thumb|A sympathetic engraving by [[Walter Crane]] of the executed "Anarchists of Chicago" after the [[Haymarket affair]]. The Haymarket affair is generally considered the most significant event for the origin of international [[May Day]] observances]]In 1907, the [[International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam]] gathered delegates from 14 different countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including [[Errico Malatesta]], [[Pierre Monatte]], [[Luigi Fabbri]], [[Benoît Broutchoux]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Rudolf Rocker]], and [[Christiaan Cornelissen]]. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement, [[popular education]] issues, the [[general strike]] or [[antimilitarism]]. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and [[syndicalism]] (or [[trade union]]ism). Malatesta and Monatte were in particular disagreement themselves on this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions of a [[social revolution]], while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.<ref>[http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=225 Extract of Malatesta's declaration] {{fr icon}}</ref> He thought that the trade-union movement was [[reformism|reformist]] and even [[Conservatism|conservative]], citing as essentially bourgeois and anti-worker the phenomenon of professional union officials. Malatesta warned that the syndicalists aims were in perpetuating syndicalism itself, whereas anarchists must always have anarchy as their end and consequently refrain from committing to any particular method of achieving it.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Skirda | first = Alexandre | title = [[Facing the Enemy|Facing the enemy: a history of anarchist organization from Proudhon to May 1968]] | publisher = [[A. K. Press]] | year = 2002 | isbn = 1-902593-19-7 |page=89 }}</ref>The [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|Spanish Workers Federation]] in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement; anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics, attracting 1.58 million members at one point and playing a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |authorlink=Antony Beevor |year=2006 |title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-84832-5 |page=24 }}</ref> The CNT was affiliated with the [[International Workers Association]], a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America. In Latin America in particular "The anarchists quickly became active in organizing craft and industrial workers throughout South and Central America, and until the early 1920s most of the trade unions in [[Anarchism in Mexico|Mexico]], [[Anarchism in Brazil|Brazil]], Peru, Chile, and Argentina were anarcho-syndicalist in general outlook; the prestige of the Spanish C.N.T. as a revolutionary organization wasundoubtedly to a great extent responsible for this situation. The largest and most militant of these organizations was the [[Federación Obrera Regional Argentina]]...it grew quicklyto a membership of nearly a quarter of a million, which dwarfed the rival socialdemocratic unions."<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/>===Propaganda of the deed and illegalism==={{Main|Propaganda of the deed|Illegalism|Expropriative anarchism}}[[Image:Lugi Gallean2.jpg|180px|left|thumb|[[Italian-American]] anarchist [[Luigi Galleani]]. His followers, known as Galleanists, carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks on 'tyrants' and 'enemies of the people']]Some anarchists, such as [[Johann Most]], advocated publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/most/actionprop.html |title="Action as Propaganda" by Johann Most, July 25, 1885 |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |date=2003-04-21 |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> By the 1880s, the slogan "propaganda of the deed" had begun to be used both within and outside of the anarchist movement to refer to individual bombings, [[regicide]]s and [[tyrannicide]]s. From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal ‘[[Confiscation|expropriations]]’."<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20090312022528/http://www.zabalaza.net/theory/txt_anok_comm_ap.htm "Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam]</ref> [[Illegalism]] as a practice emerged and within it "The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("[[propaganda by the deed]]") and the anarchist burglars ("[[individual reappropriation]]") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be exemplary , invitations to revolt.".<ref name="illegalism">[http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm "The "illegalists" by Doug Imrie. From "Anarchy: a Journal Of Desire Armed" , Fall-Winter, 1994-95]</ref> France's [[Bonnot Gang]] was the most famous group to embrace illegalism.However, as soon as 1887, important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves from such individual acts. [[Peter Kropotkin]] thus wrote that year in ''Le Révolté'' that "a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite".<ref>quoted in Billington, James H. 1998. ''Fire in the minds of men: origins of the revolutionary faith'' New Jersey: Transaction Books, p 417.</ref> A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favor of collective revolutionary action, for example through the [[trade union]] movement. The [[anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalist]], [[Fernand Pelloutier]], argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labor movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm |title=Table Of Contents |publisher=Blackrosebooks.net |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref>[[Political repression|State repression]] (including the infamous 1894 French ''[[lois scélérates]]'') of the anarchist and [[labor movement]]s following the few successful bombings and assassinations may have contributed to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although reciprocally state repression, in the first place, may have played a role in these isolated acts. The dismemberment of the French [[socialist movement]], into many groups and, following the suppression of the 1871 [[Paris Commune]], the execution and exile of many ''[[communards]]'' to [[penal colonies]], favored individualist political expression and acts.<ref>Historian [[Benedict Anderson]] thus writes: <blockquote> "In March 1871 the Commune took power in the abandoned city and held it for two months. Then [[Adolphe Thiers|Versailles]] seized the moment to attack and, in one horrifying week, executed roughly 20,000 Communards or suspected sympathizers, a number higher than those killed in the recent war or during [[Robespierre]]'s '[[Reign of Terror|Terror]]' of 1793–1794. More than 7,500 were jailed or deported to places like New Caledonia. Thousands of others fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States. In 1872, stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organizing on the left. Not till 1880 was there a general amnesty for exiled and imprisoned Communards. Meanwhile, the Third Republic found itself strong enough to renew and reinforce [[Napoleon III of France|Louis Napoleon]]'s imperialist expansion– in Indochina, Africa, and Oceania. Many of France's leading intellectuals and artists had participated in the Commune ([[Gustave Courbet|Courbet]] was its quasi-minister of culture, [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]] and [[Pissarro]] were active propagandists) or were sympathetic to it. The ferocious repression of 1871 and thereafter, was probably the key factor in alienating these milieux from the Third Republic and stirring their sympathy for its victims at home and abroad." (in {{Cite news|author=Benedict Anderson |title=In the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel |publisher=[[New Left Review]]|date=July -August 2004|url=http://newleftreview.org/?view=2519}}) </blockquote> According to some analysts, in [[History of Germany since 1945|post-war Germany]], the prohibition of the [[Communist Party of Germany|Communist Party]] (KDP) and thus of institutional far-left political organization may also, in the same manner, have played a role in the creation of the [[Red Army Faction]].</ref>Numerous heads of state were assassinated between 1881 and 1914 by members of the anarchist movement. For example, U.S. [[William McKinley|President McKinley]]'s assassin [[Leon Czolgosz]] claimed to have been influenced by anarchist and [[feminist]] [[Emma Goldman]].  Bombings were associated in the media with anarchists because [[international terrorism]] arose during this time period with the widespread distribution of dynamite. This image remains to this day.Propaganda of the deed was abandoned by the vast majority of the anarchist movement after [[World War I]] (1914–1918) and the [[1917 October Revolution]].===Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the 1910s==={{Main|Anarchism in Russia|Russian Revolution (1917)|Revolutions of 1917–23}}[[Image:Makhno group.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nestor Makhno]] with members of the anarchist [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]]]]Anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolshevik]]s in both [[February Revolution|February]] and [[October Revolution|October revolutions]], and were initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Dirlik | first = Arif | title = Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-520-07297-9 }}</ref> However, following a political falling out with the Bolsheviks by the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict that culminated in the 1921 [[Kronstadt rebellion]] which the new government repressed. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks; the anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to the [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite book| last = Avrich | first = Paul | title = The Russian Anarchists | publisher = AK Press | location = Stirling | year = 2006 | isbn = 1-904859-48-8 |page=204}}</ref> There, in the [[Free Territory (Ukraine)|Free Territory]], they fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against the [[White movement|Whites]] (a grouping of monarchists and other opponents of the October Revolution) and then the Bolsheviks as part of the [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]] led by [[Nestor Makhno]], who established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months.Expelled American anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising, before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticizing the amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them, [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]]'s predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist" Marxist state would become a new elite had proved all too true.<ref name="bakuninmarx">"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/1872/karl-marx.htm On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx]" in ''Bakunin on Anarchy'', translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971.</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last = Goldman | first = Emma | title = [[My Disillusionment in Russia]] |chapter=Preface |page=xx | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-486-43270-X |quote= My critic further charged me with believing that "had the Russians made the Revolution à la Bakunin instead of à la Marx" the result would have been different and more satisfactory. I plead guilty to the charge. In truth, I not only believe so; I am certain of it.}}</ref>The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; [[Communist party|Communist parties]] grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, for example, members of the major syndicalist movements of the [[Confédération générale du travail|CGT]] and [[Industrial Workers of the World|IWW]] left the organizations and joined the [[Comintern|Communist International]].<ref>{{Cite book| editor1-last = Drachkovitch | editor1-first = Milorad M. |first=Max |last=Nomad |contribution=The Anarchist Tradition |title = Revolutionary Internationals 1864 1943 | publisher = Stanford University Press |page=88 | year = 1966 | isbn = 0-8047-0293-4 }}</ref>The [[Revolutions of 1917–23|revolutionary wave of 1917–23]] saw the active participation of anarchists in varying degrees of protagonism. In the German uprising known as the [[Bavarian Soviet Republic]] the [[anarchist]]s [[Gustav Landauer]], [[Silvio Gesell]] and [[Erich Mühsam]] had important leadership positions within the revolutionary [[Council communism|councilist]] structures.<ref>"The Munich Soviet (or “Council Republic”) of 1919 exhibited certain features of the TAZ, even though — like most revolutions — its stated goals were not exactly “temporary.” Gustav Landauer's participation as Minister of Culture along with Silvio Gesell as Minister of Economics and other anti-authoritarian and extreme libertarian socialists such as the poet/playwrights Erich Mªhsam and Ernst Toller, and Ret Marut (the novelist B. Traven), gave the Soviet a distinct anarchist flavor." [[Hakim Bey]].  [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Hakim_Bey__T.A.Z.__The_Temporary_Autonomous_Zone__Ontological_Anarchy__Poetic_Terrorism.html "T.A.Z.: The Temporary Autonomous Zone, Ontological Anarchy, Poetic Terrorism"]</ref><ref>[http://www.br-online.de/bayern/einst-und-jetzt/die-bayerische-revolution-191819-DID1221045814026/muenchner-revolution-erste-raeterepublik-toller-landauer-muehsam-ID1221496411667.xml "Die bayerische Revolution 1918/19. Die erste Räterepublik der Literaten"]{{dead link|date=November 2011}}</ref> In the Italian events known as the ''[[biennio rosso]]'' the anarcho-syndicalist trade union [[Unione Sindacale Italiana]] "grew to 800,000 members and the influence of the Italian Anarchist Union (20,000 members plus ''[[Umanita Nova]]'', its daily paper) grew accordingly...Anarchists were the first to suggest occupying workplaces.<ref>[http://libcom.org/history/articles/italy-factory-occupations-1920 "1918-1921: The Italian factory occupations - Biennio Rosso"]</ref> In the [[Mexican Revolution]] the [[Mexican Liberal Party]] was established and during the early 1910s it lead a series of military offensives leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and districts in [[Baja California]] with the leadership of anarcho-communist [[Ricardo Flores Magón]].<ref>[http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/99winter/magonista.htm "The Magonista Revolt in Baja California Capitalist Conspiracy or Rebelion de los Pobres?"  by Lawrence D. Taylor]</ref>In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included [[Nestor Makhno]], concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the ''[[Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)]]'',<ref name=Platformtext>{{Cite book|last=Dielo Trouda |authorlink=Dielo Truda |title=Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft) |origyear=1926 |url=http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000 |accessdate=2006-10-24 |year=2006 |publisher=FdCA |location=Italy}}</ref> was supported. [[Platformist]] groups active today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland and the [[NEFAC|North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] of North America. [[Synthesis anarchism]] emerged as an organizational alternative to platformism which tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of [[anarchism without adjectives]].<ref name="infoshop.org">{{cite web|author=— Starhawk |url=http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3 |title="J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?" in [[An Anarchist FAQ]]|publisher=Infoshop.org |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> In the 1920s this form found as its main proponents [[Volin]] and [[Sebastien Faure]].<ref name="infoshop.org"/> It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global [[International of Anarchist Federations]].<ref name="infoshop.org"/>[[Image:Members of the Maquis in La Tresorerie.jpg|thumb|left|Anti-fascist [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]], who resisted [[Nazism|Nazi]] and [[Francisco Franco|Francoist]] rule in Europe.]]===Fight against fascism, the Spanish revolution  and World War II==={{Main|anti-fascism|anarchism and nationalism}}{{See also|anarchism in Italy|anarchism in France|anarchism in Spain}}In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of [[fascism]] in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. [[Anarchism in Italy|Italian anarchists]] played a key role in the [[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] organisation ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]'', which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions, and achieved some success in their activism, such as repelling [[Blackshirts]] in the anarchist stronghold of [[Parma]] in August 1922.<ref>Holbrow, Marnie, [http://www.socialistreview.org.uk/article.php?articlenumber=8205 "Daring but Divided"] (''Socialist Review'' November 2002).</ref> The veteran Italian anarchist, Luigi Fabbri, was one of the first critical theorists of fascism, describing it as "the preventive counter-revolution." <ref name=autogenerated1 /> In France, where the [[far right leagues]] came close to insurrection in the [[6 February 1934 crisis|February 1934 riots]], anarchists divided over a [[united front]] policy.<ref>Berry, David. "Fascism or Revolution." ''Le Libertaire''. August 1936.</ref>In Spain, the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–1939).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |authorlink=Antony Beevor |year=2006 |page=46 |title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-84832-5 }}</ref> In response to the army rebellion, an [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[Collective farming|collectivised]] the land.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Bolloten | first = Burnett | authorlink = Burnett Bolloten | coauthors = | title = The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | date = 1984-11-15 | location = | page =1107 | url = | doi =  | isbn = 978-0-8078-1906-7 }}</ref> But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the [[Stalinism|Stalinists]], who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the [[Soviet Union]]. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both [[Workers' Party of Marxist Unification|dissident Marxists]] and anarchists.<ref>{{Cite book|isbn=1-57181-542-2 |page=29 |title=Sartre Against Stalinism |first=Ian |last=Birchall |year=2004 |publisher=Berghahn Books}}</ref>Anarchists in [[Anarchism in France|France]]<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/texts/war/anarFranceWW2.html "Anarchist Activity in France during World War Two"]</ref> and [[Anarchism in Italy|Italy]]<ref>[http://libcom.org/history/articles/italian-resistance-anarchist-partisans-1943 "1943-1945: Anarchist partisans in the Italian Resistance"]</ref> were active in the [[Resistance during World War II]].=== Post-war years ===[[File:Paul Goodman.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], influential American anarchist author of ''[[Growing Up Absurd|Growing Up Absurd: Problems of Youth in the Organized Society]]'' among other works critical of contemporary societies]]Anarchism sought to reorganize itself after the war. The [[Mexican Anarchist Federation]] was established on 1945 after the Anarchist Federation of the Center united with the Anarchist Federation of the Federal District.<ref>[http://www.portaloaca.com/historia/historia-libertaria/1735-regeneracion-y-la-federacion-anarquista-mexicana-1952-1960-tesis.html "Regeneración y la Federación Anarquista Mexicana (1952-1960)" by Ulises Ortega Aguilar]</ref> In the early 1940s Antifascist International Solidarity and Federation of Anarchist Groups of Cuba merge into the large national organization Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (Cuban Libertarian Association).<ref>"The surviving sectors of the revolutionary anarchist movement of the 1920-1940 period, now working in the SIA and the FGAC, reinforced by those Cuban militants and Spanish anarchists fleeing now-fascist Spain, agreed at the beginning of the decade to hold an assembly with the purpose of regrouping the libertarian forces inside a single organization. The guarantees of the 1940 Constitution permitted them to legally create an organization of this type, and it was thus that they agreed to dissolve the two principal Cuban anarchist organizations, the SIA and FGAC, and create a new, unified group, the Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (ALC), a sizable organization with a membership in the thousands."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Frank_Fernandez__Cuban_Anarchism__The_History_of_A_Movement.html#toc8 ''Cuban Anarchism: The History of A Movement'' by Frank Fernandez]</ref> From 1944 to 1947, the Bulgarian Anarchist Communist Federation reemerges as part of a factory and workplace committee movement, but is repressed by the new Communist regime.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com">[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/ Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939-1977) « Robert Graham’s Anarchism Weblog<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 1945 in [[Anarchism in France|France]] the [[Fédération Anarchiste]] is established and the also [[Synthesist anarchism|synthesist]] [[Federazione Anarchica Italiana]] is founded in [[Anarchism in Italy|Italy]]. Korean anarchists form the League of Free Social Constructors in September 1945<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> and in 1946 the [[Japanese Anarchist Federation]] is founded.<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/af/ace/japchap3.html THE ANARCHIST MOVEMENT IN JAPAN Anarchist Communist Editions § ACE Pamphlet No. 8]</ref> An International Anarchist Congress with delegates from across Europe is held in Paris in May 1948.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> In 1956 the [[Uruguayan Anarchist Federation]] is founded.<ref>[http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=3701 "50 años de la Federación Anarquista Uruguaya"]</ref> In 1955 the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina renames itself as the [[Argentine Libertarian Federation]].Anarchism continued to be influential in important literary and intellectual personalities of the time such as [[Albert Camus]], [[Herbert Read]], [[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], [[Dwight Macdonald]], [[Allen Ginsberg]], [[George Woodcock]], [[Julian Beck]] and the French [[Surrealism|Surrealist]] group led by [[André Breton]] which now openly embraced anarchism and collaborated in the [[Fédération Anarchiste]].<ref>"It was in the black mirror of anarchism that surrealism first recognised itself," wrote André Breton in "The Black Mirror of Anarchism," Selection 23 in Robert Graham, ed., ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939-1977)''[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/]. Breton had returned to France in 1947 and in April of that year Andre Julien welcomed his return in the pages of Le Libertaire the weekly paper of the [[Fédération Anarchiste|Federation Anarchiste]]"[http://libcom.org/history/1919-1950-the-politics-of-surrealism "1919-1950: The politics of Surrealism" by Nick Heath]</ref>[[Anarcho-pacifism]] became influential in the [[Anti-nuclear movement]] and [[anti war movement]]s of the time<ref>"In the forties and fifties, anarchism, in fact if not in name, began to reappear, often in alliance with pacifism, as the basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the Cold War.[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/] The anarchist/pacifist wing of the peace movement was small in comparison with the wing of the movement that emphasized electoral work, but made an important contribution to the movement as a whole. Where the more conventional wing of the peace movement rejected militarism and war under all but the most dire circumstances, the anarchist/pacifist wing rejected these on principle."[http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref><ref>"In the 1950s and 1960s anarcho-pacifism began to gel, tough-minded anarchists adding to the mixture their critique of the state, and tender-minded pacifists their critique of violence. Its first practical manifestation was at the level of method: nonviolent direct action, principled and pragmatic, was used widely in both the Civil Rights movement in the USA and the campaign against nuclear weapons in Britain and elsewhere."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Geoffrey_Ostergaard__Resisting_the_Nation_State._The_pacifist_and_anarchist_tradition.html#toc13 Geoffrey Ostergaard.  ''Resisting the Nation State. The pacifist and anarchist tradition'']</ref> as can be seen in the activism and writings of the English anarchist member of [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] [[Alex Comfort]] or the similar activism of the American catholic anarcho-pacifist [[Ammon Hennacy]]. Anarcho-pacifism became a "basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the [[Cold War]]."<ref>[http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref> The resurgence of anarchist ideas during this period is well documented in Robert Graham's [[Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas]], ''Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939-1977)''.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/>===Contemporary anarchism==={{Main|Contemporary anarchism}}[[Image:ParcGuellOkupas.jpg|thumb|left|The famous ''okupas'' [[squatting|squat]] near [[Park Güell|Parc Güell]], overlooking [[Barcelona]]. [[Squatting]] was a prominent part of the emergence of renewed anarchist movement from the [[counterculture]] of the 1960s and 1970s.]] A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thomas|1985|page=4}}</ref> Anarchism was influential in the [[Counterculture of the 1960s]]<ref>[http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/dnckhs "These groups had their roots in the anarchist resurgence of the nineteen sixties. Young militants finding their way to anarchism, often from the anti-bomb and anti-Vietnam war movements, linked up with an earlier generation of activists, largely outside the ossified structures of ‘official’ anarchism. Anarchist tactics embraced demonstrations, direct action such as industrial militancy and squatting, protest bombings like those of the First of May Group and Angry Brigade – and a spree of publishing activity.""Islands of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos, Refract and their support network" by John Patten]</ref><ref>"Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and inspirations for the 60s. As Farrell puts it, "Catholic Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade."[http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SA/en/display/268 "The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by James J. Farrell]</ref><ref>"While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles bcame so widespread that a political science profes- sor denounced what she saw as "The Tyranny of Structurelessness." Several groups have called themselves "Amazon Anarchists." After the [[Stonewall Rebellion]], the New York [[Gay Liberation Front]] based their organization in part on a reading of [[Murray Bookchin]]'s anarchist writings." [http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Anarchism.pdf "Anarchism" by Charley Shively in ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'']. pg. 52</ref> and anarchists actively participated in the [[Protests of 1968|late sixties students and workers revolts]].<ref>"Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties...But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general and state power in particular...By the late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement." [http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref> In 1968 in [[Carrara]], Italy the [[International of Anarchist Federations]] was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of [[Anarchist Federation (France)|France]], the [[Federazione Anarchica Italiana|Italian]] and the [[Iberian Anarchist Federation]] as well as the [[Bulgaria]]n federation in French exile.<ref>[http://www.iisg.nl/archives/en/files/l/10760196.php London Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968] International Institute of Social History, Accessed 19 January 2010</ref><ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/ifa-hist-short.html Short history of the IAF-IFA] A-infos news project, Accessed 19 January 2010</ref>In the United Kingdom in the 1970s this was associated with the [[punk rock]] movement, as exemplified by bands such as [[Crass]] and the [[Sex Pistols]].<ref>{{Cite book| last = McLaughlin | first = Paul | title = Anarchism and Authority | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-7546-6196-2 | page = 10| unused_data = page10}}</ref> The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of [[commune (intentional community)|communes]] and [[Squatting|squatter]] movements like that of [[Barcelona]], Spain. In Denmark, [[squatter]]s occupied a disused military base and declared the [[Freetown Christiania]], an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen.Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century,<ref name="revival">{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Leonard |year=2007 |month=September |title=Anarchism Revived |journal=New Political Science |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=297–312 |doi=10.1080/07393140701510160 }}</ref> a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged. Although feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of [[anarcha-feminism]], they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s. The [[American Civil Rights Movement]] and the movement against the [[Vietnam War|war in Vietnam]] also contributed to the revival of North American anarchism. European anarchism of the late 20th century drew much of its strength from the labour movement, and both have incorporated [[animal rights]] activism. Anarchist anthropologist [[David Graeber]] and anarchist historian [[Andrej Grubacic]] have posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits" of the 19th century contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by [[Traditional knowledge|indigenous]], [[feminism|feminist]], [[ecology|ecological]] and [[counterculture|cultural-critical]] ideas", and who by the turn of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists.<ref name="graeber">[[David Graeber]] and [[Andrej Grubacic]], "[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&ItemID=4796 Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century]", [[ZNet]]. Retrieved 2007-12-13. or [http://www.punksinscience.org/kleanthes/courses/UK04S/WV/Graeber-Grubacic.pdf Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej(2004)Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century Retrieved 2010-07-26]</ref>Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and [[anti-globalisation movement]]s.<ref name=rupert>{{Cite book| page=66 |last = Rupert | first = Mark | title = Globalization and International Political Economy | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location = Lanham | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-7425-2943-6 }}</ref> Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), [[G8|Group of Eight]], and the [[World Economic Forum]]. Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction, and violent confrontations with police. These actions were precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless, anonymous cadres known as ''[[black bloc]]s''; other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include [[security culture]], [[affinity groups]] and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet.<ref name=rupert/> A significant event of this period was the confrontations at [[World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity|WTO conference in Seattle in 1999]].<ref name=rupert/>International anarchist federations in existence include the [[International of Anarchist Federations]], the [[International Workers' Association]], and [[International Libertarian Solidarity]].The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederación General del Trabajo]] (CGT) and the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]. CGT membership was estimated to be around 100,000 for 2003.<ref>Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 1993–2003" (International:SPIRE Associates 2004).</ref> Other active syndicalist movements include in Sweden the [[Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden]] and the [[Swedish Anarcho-syndicalist Youth Federation]]; the CNT-AIT in France;<ref>[http://www.cnt-ait-fr.org/CNT-AIT/ACCUEIL.html%20Website%20of%20the%20Confédération%20Nationale%20du%20Travail%20-%20Association%20Internationale%20des%20Travailleurs http://www.cnt-ait-fr.org/CNT-AIT/ACCUEIL.html Website of the Confédération Nationale du Travail - Association Internationale des Travailleurs]</ref> the [[Unione Sindacale Italiana|Union Sindicale Italiana]] in Italy; in the US [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]] and the UK [[Solidarity Federation]]. The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]], claiming 2,000 paying members, and the [[International Workers Association]], an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active.==Anarchist schools of thought=={{Main|Anarchist schools of thought}}[[File:Portrait of Pierre Joseph Proudhon 1865.jpg|thumb|Portrait of philosopher [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (1809–1865) by [[Gustave Courbet]]. Proudhon was the primary proponent of anarchist [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]], and influenced many later [[individualist anarchist]] thinkers.]]Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions, [[individualist anarchism]] and [[social anarchism]], which have some different origins, values and evolution.<ref name=slevin/><ref name="black dict" /><ref>[http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/archive/Anarchism Anarchism], [http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1855069954 The New Encyclopedia of Social Reform] (1908).</ref> The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises [[negative liberty]], i.e. opposition to state or [[social control]] over the individual, while those in the social wing emphasise [[positive liberty]] to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfill, "recognizing equality of entitlement".<ref>Harrison, Kevin and Boyd, Tony. ''Understanding Political Ideas and Movements''. Manchester University Press 2003, p. 251.</ref> In chronological and theoretical sense there are classical — those created throughout the 19th century — and post-classical anarchist schools — those created since the mid-20th century and after.Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is [[philosophical anarchism]], which embodies the theoretical stance that the [[state (polity)|state]] lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism<ref>Outhwaite, William & Tourain, Alain (Eds.). (2003). Anarchism. The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2nd Edition, p. 12). Blackwell Publishing.</ref><ref>Wayne Gabardi, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0554%28198603%2980%3A1%3C300%3AA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 review] of ''Anarchism'' by David Miller, published in ''American Political Science Review'' Vol. 80, No. 1. (Mar., 1986), pp. 300-302.</ref> philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a [[minarchism|minimal state]] as unfortunate, and usually temporary, "necessary evil" but argue that citizens do not have a [[moral obligation]] to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy.<ref>Klosko, George. ''Political Obligations''. Oxford University Press 2005. p. 4.</ref> One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was "[[anarchism without adjectives]]", a call for [[toleration]] first adopted by [[Fernando Tarrida del Mármol]] in 1889 in response to the "bitter debates" of anarchist theory at the time.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''[[Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]]''. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 6.</ref> In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist-, communist-, mutualist- and individualist-anarchism), it sought to emphasise the [[anti-authoritarian]] beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought.<ref>Esenwein, George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain, 1868–1898" [p. 135].</ref>===Mutualism==={{Main|Mutualism (economic theory)}}Mutualism began in 18th century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in France and others in the United States.<ref>"A member of a community," ''The Mutualist''; this 1826 series criticised [[Robert Owen]]'s proposals, and has been attributed to a dissident Owenite, possibly from the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests of Valley Forge; [[Shawn Wilburn|Wilbur, Shawn]], 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?".</ref> Proudhon proposed [[spontaneous order]], whereby organization emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does "what he wishes and only what he wishes"<ref>Proudhon, ''Solution to the Social Problem'', ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), p. 45.</ref> and where "business transactions alone produce the social order."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Proudhon |first=Pierre-Joseph |authorlink=Pierre-Joseph Proudhon |title=The Principle of Federation |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto |year=1979 |isbn=0-8020-5458-7 |quote=The notion of ''anarchy'' in politics is just as rational and positive as any other. It means that once industrial functions have taken over from political functions, then business transactions alone produce the social order.}}</ref> Despite some of his radical claims, it is important to recognize that Proudhon distinguished between ideal political possibilities and practical governance. For this reason, much in contrast to some of his theoretical statements concerning ultimate spontaneous self-governance, Proudhon was heavily involved in French parliamentary politics and allied himself not with Anarchist but Socialist factions of workers movements and, in addition to advocating state-protected charters for worker-owned cooperatives, promoted certain nationalization schemes during his life of public service.Mutualist anarchism is concerned with [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]], free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. According to William Batchelder Greene, each worker in the mutualist system would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount."<ref>"Communism versus Mutualism", ''Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic and Financial Fragments''. (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1875) [[William Batchelder Greene]]: "Under the mutual system, each individual will receive the just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount; and so much as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the community of which he is an individual member."</ref> Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America'', Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 0-691-04494-5, p.6<br />''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 11.</ref> Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."<ref>Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. ''What Is Property?'' Princeton, MA: Benjamin R. Tucker, 1876. p. 281.</ref>===Individualist anarchism==={{Main|Individualist anarchism}}Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the [[individual]] and their [[will (philosophy)|will]] over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems.<ref name="ryner">"What do I mean by individualism?I mean by individualism the moral doctrine which, relying on no dogma, no tradition, no external determination, appeals only to the individual conscience."[http://www.marx.org/archive/ryner/1905/mini-manual.htm ''Mini-Manual of Individualism'' by Han Ryner]</ref><ref name="tucker">"I do not admit anything except the existence of the individual, as a condition of his sovereignty. To say that the sovereignty of the individual is conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying that it is conditioned by itself.""Anarchism and the State" in ''Individual Liberty''</ref> Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict.[[Image:Max stirner.jpg|thumb|[[19th century philosophy|19th century philosopher]] [[Max Stirner]], usually considered a prominent early [[individualist anarchist]] (sketch by [[Friedrich Engels]]).]]In 1793, [[William Godwin]], who has often<ref>Everhart, Robert B. The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of Education and the State in American Society. Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research, 1982. p. 115.</ref> been cited as the first anarchist, wrote ''[[Political Justice]]'', which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism.<ref name="godwinsep" /><ref>Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press, 2001. p. 116.</ref> Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a [[rationalist]] and [[utilitarian]] basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a [[Limited government|minimal state]] as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.<ref name="godwinsep">{{sep entry|godwin|William Godwin|Mark Philip|2006-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=[[Political Justice|Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners]] |last=Godwin |first=William |authorlink=William Godwin |year=1796 |publisher=G.G. and J. Robinson |oclc=2340417 |origyear=1793}}</ref> Godwin advocated [[individualism]], proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.<ref>''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia''. Retrieved 7 December 2006, from [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9037183 Encyclopædia Britannica Online].</ref><ref name=pmcl119>Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 119.</ref>An influential form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism,"<ref name="Goodway, David 2006, p. 99">Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, p. 99.</ref> or [[egoist anarchism]], was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German [[Max Stirner]].<ref name="SEP-Stirner">{{sep entry|max-stirner|Max Stirner|[[David Leopold]]|2006-08-04}}</ref> Stirner's ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'', published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.<ref name = "SEP-Stirner" /> According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire,<ref>The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176.</ref> without regard for God, state, or morality.<ref>Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11.</ref> To Stirner, rights were ''[[Reification (fallacy)|spooks]]'' in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality".<ref>"What my might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property everything I feel myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my actual property as fas as ''I'' entitle, that is, empower myself to take..." In Ossar, Michael. 1980. ''Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller''. SUNY Press. p. 27.</ref> Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw [[union of egoists|unions of egoists]], non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will,<ref name=nonserviam>{{cite web|first=Svein Olav |last=Nyberg |work=Non Serviam|url=http://www.nonserviam.com/stirner/philosophy/index.html|title=max stirner|accessdate=2008-12-04}}{{dead link|date=November 2011}}</ref> which Stirner proposed as a form of organization in place of the [[state (polity)|state]].<ref name=karl>{{Cite book| last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = [[Routledge]]/[[Kegan Paul]] | location = London | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=142}}</ref> Egoist anarchists claim that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.<ref name=carlson>{{Cite book| last = Carlson | first = Andrew | title = Anarchism in Germany | publisher = Scarecrow Press | location = Metuchen | year = 1972 | isbn = 0-8108-0484-0 |chapterurl=http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/carlson.html |chapter=Philosophical Egoism: German Antecedents|accessdate=2008-12-04}}</ref> "Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and [[LGBT]] activist [[John Henry Mackay]].{{Individualism sidebar}}[[Josiah Warren]] is widely regarded as the first American [[anarchist]],<ref name=Slate>Palmer, Brian (2010-12-29) [http://www.slate.com/id/2279457/ What do anarchists want from us?], ''[[Slate.com]]''</ref> and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', was the first anarchist periodical published,.<ref name="bailie20">William Bailie, [http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/warren/1stAmAnarch.pdf] ''Josiah Warren: The First American Anarchist &mdash; A Sociological Study'', Boston: Small, Maynard & Co., 1906, p. 20</ref> For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster "It is apparent...that [[Proudhon]]ian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of [[Josiah Warren]] and [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]]...[[William B. Greene]] presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form.".<ref name="againstallauthority.org">[http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html ''Native American Anarchism: A Study of Left-Wing American Individualism'' by Eunice Minette Schuster]</ref> [[Henry David Thoreau]] (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, [[Development criticism|development critic]], surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading [[transcendentalist]]. He is best known for his books ''[[Walden]]'', a reflection upon [[simple living]] in natural surroundings, and his essay, ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]'', an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later [[Benjamin Tucker]] fused Stirner´s egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his [[eclectic]] influential publication ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]''.From these early influences individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals,<ref name="bohemian individualism">[http://libcom.org/library/socanlifean2 "2. Individualist Anarchism and Reaction" in Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism - An Unbridgeable Chasm]</ref> [[free love]] and [[birth control]] advocates (see [[Anarchism and issues related to love and sex]]),<ref name="freelove">[http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy]</ref><ref>[http://www.acracia.org/1-23a58lainsumision.pdf "La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923-1938)" by Xavier Díez]</ref> individualist [[Naturism|naturist]]s [[Nudism|nudist]]s (see [[anarcho-naturism]]),<ref>"Los anarco-individualistas, G.I.A...Una escisión de la FAI producida en el IX Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se produjo cuando un sector de anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretación que ellos juzgan disciplinaria del ''pacto asociativo" clásico, y crean los GIA (Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica) . Esta pequeña federación de grupos, hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco-individualistas de orientación pacifista, naturista, etcétera defiende la autonomía personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervención en los procesos del sistema, como sería por ejemplo el sindicalismo. Su portavoz es L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La escisión de los GIA prefiguraba, en sentido contrario, el gran debate que pronto había de comenzar en el seno del movimiento"[http://almeralia.enlucha.info/bicicleta/bicicleta/ciclo/01/17.htm "El movimiento libertario en Italia" by ''Bicicleta. REVISTA DE COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS'' Year 1 No. Noviembre, 1 1977]</ref><ref name="acracia.org">"Proliferarán así diversos grupos que practicarán el excursionismo, el naturismo, el nudismo, la emancipación sexual o el esperantismo, alrededor de asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera o de otra al anarquismo. Precisamente las limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras impuestas desde la legislación especial de la Dictadura potenciarán indirectamente esta especie de asociacionismo informal en que confluirá el movimiento anarquista con esta heterogeneidad de prácticas y tendencias. Uno de los grupos más destacados, que será el impulsor de la revista individualista Ética será el Ateneo Naturista Ecléctico, con sede en Barcelona, con sus diferentes secciones la más destacada de las cuales será el grupo excursionista Sol y Vida."[http://www.acracia.org/1-23a58lainsumision.pdf "La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923-1938)" by Xavier Díez]</ref><ref name="aujourdhui">"Les anarchistes individualistes du début du siècle l'avaient bien compris, et intégraient le naturisme dans leurs préoccupations. Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé, d'antan plus que nous assistons, en ce moment, à un retour en force du puritanisme (conservateur par essence)."[http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html "Anarchisme et naturisme, aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak]</ref> [[freethought]] and [[Anti-clericalism|anti-clearical]] activists<ref name="mises.org">[http://mises.org/journals/jls/5_3/5_3_4.pdf [[Wendy McElroy]]. "The culture of individualist anarchist in Late-nineteenth century America"]</ref><ref>[http://www.viruseditorial.net/pdf/anarquismo%20individualista.pdf Xavier Diez. ''El anarquismo individualista en España (1923-1939)''  Virus Editorial. 2007. pg. 143]</ref> as well as young anarchist outlaws in what came to be known as [[illegalism]] and [[individual reclamation]]<ref name="The Illegalists">[http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm The "Illegalists"], by Doug Imrie (published by [[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]])</ref><ref name="Parry, Richard 1987. p. 15">Parry, Richard. The Bonnot Gang. Rebel Press, 1987. p. 15</ref> (see [[European individualist anarchism]] and [[individualist anarchism in France]]). These authors and activists included [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Emile Armand]], [[Han Ryner]], [[Henri Zisly]], [[Renzo Novatore]], [[Miguel Gimenez Igualada]], [[Adolf Brand]] and [[Lev Chernyi]] among others.===Social anarchism==={{Main|Social anarchism}}Social anarchism calls for a system with public ownership of means of production and democratic control of all organizations, without any government authority or [[coercion]]. It is the largest school of thought in anarchism.<ref>"This does not mean that the majority thread within the anarchist movement is uncritical of individualist anarchism. Far from it! Social anarchists have argued that this influence of non-anarchist ideas means that while its "criticism of the State is very searching, and [its] defence of the rights of the individual very powerful," like Spencer it "opens . . . the way for reconstituting under the heading of 'defence' all the functions of the State." [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secGint.html Section G – Is individualist anarchism capitalistic? ''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]'']</ref> Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality, and emphasises cooperation and [[mutual aid (organization)|mutual aid]].<ref>[[Geoffrey Ostergaard|Ostergaard, Geoffrey]]. "Anarchism". A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.</ref>[[File:Kropotkin2.jpg|thumb|left|Russian theorist [[Peter Kropotkin]] (1842–1921), who was influential in the development of [[anarchist communism]].]][[Collectivist anarchism]], also referred to as "revolutionary socialism" or a form of such,<ref>Morris, Brian. Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 76.</ref><ref>Rae, John. Contemporary Socialism. C. Scribner's sons, 1901, Original from Harvard University. p. 261.</ref> is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Johann Most]].<ref name = "Patsouras-p54">Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54.</ref><ref>Avrich, Paul. 2006. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. [[AK Press]]. p. 5.</ref> Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivised. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or "[[propaganda by the deed]]", which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivise the means of production.<ref name = "Patsouras-p54" />However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by [[anarchist communists]] as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |title=The Conquest of Bread |publisher=AK Press |location=Edinburgh |year=2007 |chapter=13 |isbn=978-1-904859-10-9}}</ref> Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with [[Marxism]] but opposed the Marxist [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bakunin |first=Mikhail |title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1990 |isbn=0-521-36182-6 |quote=They [the Marxists] maintain that only a dictatorship&nbsp;– their dictatorship, of course&nbsp;– can create the will of the people, while our answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it; freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up.}}</ref> Anarchist, communist and collectivist ideas are not [[mutually exclusive]]; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.<ref>{{cite web|authorlink=James Guillaume|last=Guillaume |first=James |url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/guillaume/works/ideas.htm |title=Ideas on Social Organization |year=1876}}</ref>{{Libertarian socialism}}[[Anarcho-communism]] developed out of radical socialist currents after the [[French revolution]]<ref name="Graham-2005" /><ref>[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__The_Great_French_Revolution_1789-1793.html#toc42 "Chapter 41: The “Anarchists”" in ''The Great French Revolution 1789-1793'' by Peter Kropotkin]</ref> but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the [[First International]].<ref>Nunzio Pernicone, "Italian Anarchism 1864 - 1892", pp. 111-113, AK Press 2009.</ref> The theoretical work of [[Peter Kropotkin]] and [[Errico Malatesta]] took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and [[Insurrectionary anarchism|insurrectionary anti-organizationalist]] sections.<ref name=" Alain Pengam">[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Alain_Pengam__Anarchist-Communism.html "Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam]</ref> [[Anarchist communism]] proposes that the freest form of [[social organisation]] would be a society composed of [[self-governance|self-managing]] [[Commune (socialism)|communes]] with collective use of the [[means of production]], organised [[democracy|democratically]], and related to other communes through [[federation]].<ref name="LibCom">[[Isaac Puente|Puente, Isaac]].[http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/libcom.html "Libertarian Communism"]. ''The Cienfuegos Press Anarchist Review''. Issue 6 Orkney 1982.</ref> While some anarchist communists favour [[direct democracy]], others feel that its [[majority rule|majoritarianism]] can impede individual liberty and favour [[consensus democracy]] instead. In anarchist communism, as money would be abolished, individuals would not receive direct [[Remuneration|compensation]] for labour (through sharing of [[Profit (economics)|profits]] or payment) but would have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune.<ref>Miller. ''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing (1991) ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 12.</ref><ref>[[David Graeber|Graeber, David]] and Grubacic, Andrej. ''Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century''.</ref> Anarchist communism does not always have a [[communitarian]] philosophy. Some forms of anarchist communism such as [[insurrectionary anarchism]] are [[egoist anarchism|egoist]] and strongly influenced by radical [[individualism]], believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom.<ref name=autogenerated2>[[Post-left anarchy|Post-left]] anarcho-communist [[Bob Black]] after analysing [[Insurrectionary anarchism|insurrectionary]] anarcho-communist [[Luigi Galleani]]'s view on anarcho-communism went as far as saying that "communism is the final fulfillment of [[individualism]]...The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both...Subjectivity is also objective: the individual really is subjective. It is nonsense to speak of “emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual,”...You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a “method of individualization.” It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Bob_Black__Nightmares_of_Reason.html#toc22 Bob Black. ''Nightmares of Reason''.]</ref><ref name="dwardmac.pitzer.edu"/><ref>Christopher Gray, ''Leaving the Twentieth Century'', p. 88.</ref><ref name="creativenothing">[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Renzo_Novatore__Toward_the_Creative_Nothing.html "Towards the creative Nothing" by [[Renzo Novatore]]]</ref> Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.<ref>"Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual liberty — provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty, Anarchy...Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__Communism_and_Anarchy.html "Communism and Anarchy" by [[Peter Kropotkin]]]</ref><ref>This other society will be libertarian communism, in which social solidarity and free individuality find their full expression, and in which these two ideas develop in perfect harmony.[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Dielo_Truda__Workers__Cause___Organisational_Platform_of_the_Libertarian_Communists.html ''Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists'' by Dielo Truda (Workers' Cause)]</ref><ref>"I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism, individual revolt and class struggle, the struggle against human exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and struggle."[http://www.reocities.com/kk_abacus/vb/wd12persp.html "MY PERSPECTIVES" by Willful Disobedience Vol. 2, No. 12]</ref>In the early 20th century, [[anarcho-syndicalism]] arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism.<ref>Berry, David, ''A History of the French Anarchist Movement'', 1917–1945 p. 134.</ref> With greater focus on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, [[syndicalism]] posits radical [[trade union]]s as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically [[Workers' self-management|self-managed by the workers]]. It is often combined with other branches of anarchism, and anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to [[anarchist communism|anarchist communist]] or [[collectivist anarchist]] [[economic system]]s.<ref name="faq-social">{{Cite book|editor=Iain Mckay |title=[[An Anarchist FAQ]] |publisher=[[AK Press]] |location=Stirling |year=2008 |isbn=1-902593-90-1 |oclc=182529204|chapter=Are there different types of social anarchism? |url=http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secA3.html#seca32}}</ref> An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was [[Rudolf Rocker]], whose 1938 pamphlet ''Anarchosyndicalism'' outlined a view of the movement's origin, aims and importance to the future of labour.<ref name="faq-social" /><ref>[http://www.spunk.org/library/writers/rocker/sp001495/rocker_as1.html ''Anarchosyndicalism]'' by [[Rudolf Rocker]]. Retrieved 7 September 2006.</ref>===Post-classical currents==={{See also|Contemporary anarchism}}[[File:Jarach and Zerzan.JPG|thumb|right|[[Lawrence Jarach]] (left) and [[John Zerzan]] (right), two prominent contemporary anarchist authors. Zerzan is known as a main theorist of [[anarcho-primitivism]], while Jarach is a noted advocate of [[post-left anarchy]].]]Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources, and [[Syncretic politics|syncretic]], combining disparate and contrary concepts to create new philosophical approaches. Since the revival of anarchism in the United States in the 1960s,<ref name="revival"/> a number of new movements and schools have emerged.<ref>Perlin, Terry M. ''[http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=mppLKlwHx7oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Contemporary+_+Anarchism&ei=vSDBSuXHMo2mM8mu-OsP#v=onepage&q=&f=false Contemporary Anarchism]''. Transaction Books, New Brunswick, NJ 1979</ref> [[Anarcho-capitalism]] developed from radical anti-state [[libertarianism]] and [[individualist anarchism]], drawing from [[Austrian School]] economics, study of [[law and economics]] and [[public choice theory]],<ref>Edward Stringham, [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=53&articleID=686 ''Anarchy, State, and Public Choice''], Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2005.</ref> while the burgeoning [[feminism|feminist]] and [[environmentalism|environmentalist]] movements also produced anarchist offshoots.[[Anarcha-feminism]] developed as a synthesis of [[radical feminism]] and anarchism that views [[patriarchy]] (male domination over women) as a fundamental manifestation of compulsory government. It was inspired by the late 19th century writings of early feminist anarchists such as [[Lucy Parsons]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Voltairine de Cleyre]], and [[Dora Marsden]]. Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticise and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and [[gender role]]s. [[Green anarchism]] (or eco-anarchism)<ref>David Pepper (1996). [http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=PQOvkB7UoWgC&pg=PA44&dq= Modern Environmentalism] p. 44. Routledge.</ref> is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on environmental issues,<ref>Ian Adams (2001). [http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=apstK1qIvvMC&pg=PA130&dq= Political Ideology Today] p. 130. Manchester University Press.</ref> with an important precedent in [[anarcho-naturism]]<ref name="acracia.org"/><ref>"Anarchism and the different Naturist views have always been related."[http://www.naturismo.org/adn/ediciones/2003/invierno/7e.html "Anarchism - Nudism, Naturism" by Carlos Ortega at Asociacion para el Desarrollo Naturista de la Comunidad de Madrid. Published on Revista ''ADN''. Winter 2003]</ref><ref name="naturismolibertario">[http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf#search=%22Antonia%20Maym%C3%B3n%22 EL NATURISMO LIBERTARIO EN LA PENÍNSULA IBÉRICA (1890-1939) by Jose Maria Rosello]</ref> and whose main contemporary currents are [[anarcho-primitivism]] and [[social ecology]]. [[Anarcho-pacifism]] is a tendency which rejects the use of violence in the struggle for social change.<ref name="ppu.org.uk"/><ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> It developed "mostly in the [[Netherlands]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], and the [[United States]], before and during the [[World War II|Second World War]]".<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> [[Christian anarchism]] is a [[Christian movement|movement]] in [[political theology]] that combines anarchism and [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel |last=Christoyannopoulos |first=Alexandre |authorlink=Alexandre Christoyannopoulos |coauthors= |year=2010 |publisher=Imprint Academic |location=Exeter |isbn= |page= |pages=2–4 |url= |accessdate=|quote=Locating Christian anarchism...In political theology}}</ref> Its main proponents included [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Dorothy Day]], [[Ammon Hennacy]], and [[Jacques Ellul]].[[Post-left anarchy]] is a tendency which seeks to distance itself from traditional [[left-wing politics]] and to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general. [[Post-anarchism]] is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought drawing from diverse ideas including [[post-modernism]], [[autonomist marxism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[Situationist International|situationism]] and [[postcolonialism]].Another recent form of anarchism critical of formal anarchist movements is [[insurrectionary anarchism]],<ref name="joeblack">{{cite web|url=http://www.ainfos.ca/06/jul/ainfos00232.html |title="Anarchism, insurrections and insurrectionalism" by Joe Black |publisher=Ainfos.ca |date=2006-07-19 |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> which advocates informal organization and active resistance to the state; its proponents include [[Wolfi Landstreicher]] and [[Alfredo M. Bonanno]].<!-- If you are looking to extend this section, please add the content to the proper sub-article [[anarchist schools of thought]] instead. -->{{-}}==Topics of interest==Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought, certain topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial within anarchist theory.===Free love==={{Main|Free love|Anarchism and sex/love|Anarcha-feminism|Queer anarchism}}[[File:Emilearmand01.jpg|thumb|300x300px|French [[individualist anarchist]] [[Emile Armand]] (1872–1962), who propounded the virtues of free love in the Parisian anarchist milieu of the early 20th century]]An important current within anarchism is [[free love]].<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html |title=The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy |publisher=Ncc-1776.org |date=1996-12-01 |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to [[Josiah Warren]] and to experimental communities, viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's self-ownership. Free love particularly stressed [[women's rights]] since most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.<ref name="freelove"/> The most important American free love journal was ''[[Lucifer the Lightbearer]]'' (1883–1907) edited by [[Moses Harman]] and [[Lois Waisbrooker]],<ref>Joanne E. Passet, "Power through Print: Lois Waisbrooker and Grassroots Feminism," in: ''Women in Print: Essays on the Print Culture of American Women from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries'', James Philip Danky and Wayne A. Wiegand, eds., Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 2006; pp. 229–250.</ref> but also there existed [[Ezra Heywood]] and Angela Heywood's ''[[The Word (free love)|''The Word'']]'' (1872–1890, 1892–1893).<ref name="freelove"/> ''[[Free Society]]'' (1895-1897 as ''The Firebrand''; 1897-1904 as ''Free Society'') was a major anarchist newspaper in the [[United States]] at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.<ref name="Goldman-MSF-551">"''Free Society'' was the principal English-language forum for anarchist ideas in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century." ''Emma Goldman: Making Speech Free, 1902-1909'', p.551.</ref> The publication advocated [[free love]] and [[women's rights]], and critiqued "[[Comstockery]]" -- censorship of sexual information. Also [[M. E. Lazarus]] was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.<ref name="freelove"/>In New York City's [[Greenwich Village]], [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] feminists and socialists advocated self-realisation and pleasure for women (and also men) in the here and now. They encouraged playing with sexual roles and sexuality,<ref>Sochen, June. 1972. ''The New Woman: Feminism in Greenwich Village 1910–1920.'' New York: Quadrangle.</ref> and the openly bisexual radical [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]] and the lesbian anarchist [[Margaret Anderson]] were prominent among them. Discussion groups organised by the Villagers were frequented by [[Emma Goldman]], among others. Magnus Hirschfeld noted in 1923 that Goldman "has campaigned boldly and steadfastly for individual rights, and especially for those deprived of their rights. Thus it came about that she was the first and only woman, indeed the first and only American, to take up the defense of homosexual love before the general public."<ref>Katz, Jonathan Ned. ''Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A.'' (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976)</ref> In fact, before Goldman, [[heterosexual]] anarchist Robert Reitzel (1849–1898) spoke positively of homosexuality from the beginning of the 1890s in his Detroit-based German language journal ''[[Der arme Teufel]]''. In Argentina anarcha-feminist [[Virginia Bolten]] published the newspaper called ''{{lang|es|La Voz de la Mujer}}'' ({{lang-en|The Woman's Voice}}), which was published nine times in Rosario between 8 January 1896 and 1 January 1897, and was revived, briefly, in 1901.<ref name="molyneux">{{cite book|last=Molyneux|first=Maxine|title=Women's movements in international perspective: Latin America and beyond|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2001|page=24|isbn=9780333786772|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yg9HFrOG89kC&pg=PA24}}</ref>In Europe the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was [[Emile Armand]].<ref name="armandfreelove">{{cite web|url=http://www.iisg.nl/womhist/manfreuk.pdf |title=E. Armand and "la camaraderie amoureuse" – Revolutionary sexualism and the struggle against jealousy |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> He proposed the concept of ''la camaraderie amoureuse'' to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of [[polyamory]].<ref name="armandfreelove"/> In Germany the [[stirner]]ists [[Adolf Brand]] and [[John Henry Mackay]] were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male [[bisexuality]] and [[homosexuality]].More recently, the British [[anarcho-pacifist]] [[Alex Comfort]] gained notoriety during the [[sexual revolution]] for writing the bestseller sex manual ''[[The Joy of Sex]]''. The issue of [[free love]] has a dedicated treatment in the work of French anarcho-[[hedonist]] philosopher [[Michel Onfray]] in such works as ''Théorie du corps amoureux : pour une érotique solaire'' (2000) and ''L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyréaniques'' (2002).===Libertarian education and freethought==={{See also|Freethought}}[[File:Fransisco Ferrer Guardia.jpg|150px|left|thumb|[[Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia]], [[Catalan people|Catalan]] anarchist pedagogue and [[Freethought|free-thinker]]]] For English anarchist [[William Godwin]] education was "the main means by which change would be achieved."<ref name="GroupedRef1">[http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-good.htm "william godwin and informal education" by infed]</ref> Godwin saw that the main goal of education should be the promotion of happiness <ref name="GroupedRef1" /> For Godwin education had to have "A respect for the child’s autonomy which precluded any form of coercion", "A pedagogy that respected this and sought to build on the child’s own motivation and initiatives" and "A concern about the child’s capacity to resist an ideology transmitted through the school."<ref name="GroupedRef1" /> In his ''[[Political Justice]]'' he criticizes state sponsored schooling "on account of its obvious alliance with national government".<ref>[http://web.bilkent.edu.tr/Online/www.english.upenn.edu/jlynch/Frank/Godwin/pj68.html [[Political Justice]{{dead link|date=November 2011}}] by [[William Godwin]]]</ref> Early American anarchist [[Josiah Warren]] advanced alternative education experiences in the libertarian communities he established.<ref>"Where utopian projectors starting with [[Plato]] entertained the idea of creating an ideal species through eugenics and education and a set of universally valid institutions inculcating shared identities, Warren wanted to dissolve such identities in a solution of individual self-sovereignty. His educational experiments, for example, possibly under the influence of the swiss educational theorist [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] (via [[Robert Owen|Owen]]), emphasized - as we would expect - the nurturing of the independence and the conscience of individual children, not the inculcation of pre-conceived values.[http://www.crispinsartwell.com/warrenintrocurrent.htm "Introduction of The Practical Anarchist: Writings of Josiah Warren" by Crispin Sartwell]</ref> [[Max Stirner]] wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called ''[[The False Principle of our Education]]''. In it Stirner names his educational principle "personalist," explaining that self-understanding consists in hourly self-creation. Education for him is to create "free men, sovereign characters," by which he means "eternal characters...who are therefore eternal because they form themselves each moment".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/falseprinciple.html |title="The False Principle of our Education" by Max Stirner |publisher=Tmh.floonet.net |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref>In the United States "freethought was a basically [[Anti-Christianity|anti-christian]], [[anti-clerical]] movement, whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters. A number of contributors to ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]'' (anarchist publication) were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism. The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor of ''Freethought'' and, for a time, ''The Truth Seeker''. E.C. Walker was co-editor of the excellent free-thought / free love journal ''[[Lucifer, the Light-Bearer]]''".<ref name="mises.org"/> "Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought papers such as ''[[Lucifer, the Light-Bearer]]'', ''Freethought'' and ''The Truth Seeker'' appeared in ''Liberty''...The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself".<ref name="mises.org"/>In 1901, Catalan anarchist and [[Freethought|free-thinker]] [[Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia]] established "modern" or [[Progressive education|progressive schools]] in [[Barcelona]] in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church.<ref name="Fidler">{{Cite journal|author=Geoffrey C. Fidler |year=1985 |month=Spring/Summer |title=The Escuela Moderna Movement of Francisco Ferrer: "Por la Verdad y la Justicia" |journal=History of Education Quarterly |volume=25 |issue=1/2 |pages=103–132   |doi=10.2307/368893 |jstor=368893 |publisher=History of Education Society}}</ref> The schools' stated goal was to "[[Popular education|educate the working class]] in a rational, secular and non-coercive setting". Fiercely anti-clerical, Ferrer believed in "freedom in education", education free from the authority of church and state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/spain/ferrer.html |title=Francisco Ferrer's Modern School |publisher=Flag.blackened.net |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> [[Murray Bookchin]] wrote: "This period [1890s] was the heyday of libertarian schools and pedagogical projects in all areas of the country where Anarchists exercised some degree of influence. Perhaps the best-known effort in this field was Francisco Ferrer's Modern School (Escuela Moderna), a project which exercised a considerable influence on Catalan education and on experimental techniques of teaching generally."<ref>Chapter 7, ''[[anarcho-syndicalism|Anarchosyndicalism]], The New Ferment''. In Murray Bookchin, ''The Spanish anarchists: the heroic years, 1868–1936''. AK Press, 1998, p.115. ISBN 1-873176-04-X</ref> La Escuela Moderna, and Ferrer's ideas generally, formed the inspiration for a series of ''[[Modern School (United States)|Modern Schools]]'' in the [[United States]],<ref name="Fidler"/> [[Cuba]], [[South America]] and [[London]]. The first of these was started in [[New York City]] in 1911. It also inspired the Italian newspaper ''[[Università popolare (Italian newspaper)|Università popolare]]'', founded in 1901. Russian [[christian anarchist]] [[Leo Tolstoy]] established a school for peasant children on his estate.<ref name="GroupedRef2">[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Matt_Hern__The_Emergence_of_Compulsory_Schooling_and_Anarchist_Resistance.html "The Emergence of Compulsory Schooling and Anarchist Resistance" by Matt Hern]</ref> Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wilson | first = A.N. | title = Tolstoy | publisher = Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc. | year = 2001 | page = xxi | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=imYmH8myBUsC&pg=PR19 |  isbn = 0393321223 }}</ref> Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture.<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> He thought that "Education is the tendency of one man to make another just like himself... Education is culture under restraint, culture is free. [Education is] when the teaching is forced upon the pupil, and when then instruction is exclusive, that is when only those subjects are taught which the educator regards as necessary".<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> For him "without compulsion, education was transformed into culture".<ref name="GroupedRef2" />A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of [[unschooling]] and the [[anarchist free school|free school]] in which child-led activity replaces pedagogic approaches. Experiments in Germany led to [[A. S. Neill]] founding what became [[Summerhill School]] in 1921.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Purkis | first = Jon | title = Changing Anarchism | publisher = Manchester University Press | location = Manchester | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-7190-6694-8 }}</ref> Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism in practice.<ref>Andrew Vincent (2010) ''Modern Political Ideologies'', 3rd edition, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell p.129</ref> However, although Summerhill and other free schools are radically libertarian, they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not advocating an overtly political [[class struggle]]-approach.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Judith |last=Suissa |url=http://newhumanist.org.uk/1288/anarchy-in-the-classroom|title= Anarchy in the classroom |journal=[[The New Humanist]] |volume=120 |issue=5 |month=September/October |year=2005}}</ref>In addition to organizing schools according to libertarian principles, anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se. The term [[deschooling]] was popularized by [[Ivan Illich]], who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for self-determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society instead.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Illich| first=Ivan |title=Deschooling Society |place= New York|publisher= Harper and Row| year= 1971| isbn= 0-06-012139-4}}</ref>==Internal issues and debates==[[File:Gadewar.jpg|thumb|The use of [[anarchism and violence|violence]] is a subject of much dispute in anarchism.]]<!-- In the interest of restricting article length, please limit this section to two or three short paragraphs and add any substantial information to the main Issues in anarchism article. Thank you. -->Anarchism is a [[philosophy]] which embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of [[anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]],<ref name=oxcom>"Anarchism." ''[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, p. 31.</ref> [[anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]] and [[anarchism and religion|religion]] with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as [[Anarchism and Marxism|Marxism]], [[Issues in anarchism#Communism|communism]] and [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]]. Anarchists may be motivated by [[humanism]], [[Christian anarchism|divine authority]], [[ethical egoism|enlightened self-interest]], [[veganarchism|veganism]] or any number of alternative ethical doctrines.Phenomena such as [[civilization]], [[technology]] (e.g. within [[anarcho-primitivism]] and [[insurrectionary anarchism]]), and [[Issues in anarchism#Participation in statist democracy|the democratic process]] may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.On a tactical level, while [[propaganda of the deed]] was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the [[Nihilist movement]]), some contemporary anarchists espouse alternative [[direct action]] methods such as [[nonviolence]], [[counter-economics]] and [[Crypto-anarchism|anti-state cryptography]] to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society, some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by local ones.<ref>Ted Honderich, Carmen García Trevijano, [http://books.google.es/books?id=s9iwZGv44psC&pg=PA402&dq=Enciclopedia+teor%C3%ADa+pol%C3%ADtica&lr=&as_brr=3#PPA57,M1 ''Oxford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy''].</ref> The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many [[definitional concerns in anarchist theory]].{{-}}== Criticisms =={{Main|Criticisms of anarchism}}Criticisms of anarchism include [[moral]] criticisms, [[consequentialism|consequentialist]] criticisms, and the criticism that anarchism could not be maintained.== See also =={{Portal box|Anarchism|Social and political philosophy|Social movements}}* [[Outline of anarchism]]* [[Anarchist symbolism]]* [[Lists of anarchism topics]]* [[List of anarchist communities]]* [[List of anarchist movements by region]]== References =={{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}==Further reading==* ''[[Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas]].'' Robert Graham, editor.** ''Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939)'' Black Rose Books, Montréal and London 2005. ISBN 1-55164-250-6.** ''Volume Two: The Anarchist Current (1939–2006)'' Black Rose Books, Montréal 2007. ISBN 978-1-55164-311-3.* ''Anarchism'', [[George Woodcock]] (Penguin Books, 1962). {{oclc|221147531}}.* ''Anarchy: A Graphic Guide'', [[Clifford Harper]] (Camden Press, 1987): An overview, updating Woodcock's classic, and illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork.* ''The Anarchist Reader'', George Woodcock (ed.) (Fontana/Collins 1977; ISBN 0-00-634011-3): An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and activists including [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], [[Errico Malatesta|Malatesta]], [[Murray Bookchin|Bookchin]], [[Emma Goldman|Goldman]], and many others.* [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Daniel_Guerin__Anarchism__From_Theory_to_Practice.html ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice''] by [[Daniel Guerin]]. Monthly Review Press. 1970. ISBN 0-85345-175-3* ''Anarchy through the times'' by [[Max Nettlau]]. Gordon Press. 1979. ISBN 0-8490-1397-6* ''Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism'' by [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]]. PM Press. 2010. ISBN 1-60486-064-2* ''People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy'' (2nd ed.) by [[Harold Barclay]], Left Bank Books, 1990 ISBN 1-871082-16-1* ''The Political Theory of Anarchism'' by [[April Carter]]. Harper & Row. 1971. ISBN 978-0-0613-6050-3* {{cite book|author=Sartwell, Crispin|title=Against the state: an introduction to anarchist political theory|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2008|isbn=9780791474471|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C}}<!-- PLEASE only include well-renowned works by reputable scholars which cover anarchism as a whole rather than individual currents. -->==External links=={{Sister project links|n=no|v=no}}{{Wikisource1911Enc|Anarchism}}* [http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop.org] - the largest online collection of news and information about anarchism.* {{In Our Time|Anarchism|p0038x9t|Anarchism}}* [http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnAnarchistFAQ "An Anarchist FAQ Webpage"]&nbsp;–[[An Anarchist FAQ]]* [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm Anarchist Theory FAQ]&nbsp;–by [[Bryan Caplan]]* [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/ The Anarchist Library] large online library with texts from anarchist authors* [http://www.ditext.com/anarchism/ Anarchism: A Bibliography]* [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia]&nbsp;–700+ entries, with short biographies, links and dedicated pages* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives]&nbsp;– information relating to famous anarchists including their writings (see [[Anarchy Archives]]).* [http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/ KateSharpleyLibrary.net]&nbsp;–website of the [[Kate Sharpley Library]], containing many historical documents pertaining to anarchism* [http://www.theyliewedie.org/ressources/biblio/index-en.php They Lie We Die]&nbsp;–anarchist virtual library containing 768 books, booklets and texts<!-- Attention! 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