Connectives
- Internal Previews: What you are going to talk about in the speech.
- Internal Summaries: What was talked about in the speech.
- Transition (Bridge): A "Bridge" between one subject to another.
- Signposts: Words telling the audience where you are in the speech.
Easier ways to remember these things
Matt's AARP Method
Rhythm
- Alliteration: similar sounding
- Antithesis: getting an opposite idea by reversing words. (Example - "Ask not what your country can do for you - ask what you can do for your country")
- Repetition
- Parallelism: list of adjectives, noun phrases
Tim's A-E-I-O-R Method
What influences my perception...
- Selective... A-E-I-O-R
- Attention
- Exposure
- Interpretation
- Organization
- Recall/Retention
Tim's AAARAQ Method
How to find out about an audience
- Ask those who ask you to speak
- Ask a former speaker
- Ask a member of the audience
- Reaserch the organization
- Audience feedback (during and after)
- Questionnaire/Surveys
Tim's P-S-C-C-D-D-E-E-B-H Method
- Peer Testimony
- Statistics: mean (average), median (number in the middle - after being put in order), mode (number that appears most often)
- Contrast: how things are different
- Comparisons: how things are alike
- Definitions (it may be people, places, things)
- Description: using adjectives and adverbs to make something come alive
- Expert Testimony
- Extended Example: narrative or story
- Brief Example
- Hypothetical Example: what if; let's pretend
JP's CSPCT Method
Patterns of Organization
- Chronological: life, process, history, background, demonstrations
- Spatial: design, arrangement, placement, layers, areas, regions, layout
- Problem/Solution: disease, treatment, prevention
- Causal (Cause and Effect): cause, effect
- Topical: kinds of things, categories, types
JP's DPS Method
Audience Analysis
- Demographic: Basic facts about people (gender, age, race, ethnic background, culture, religion, nationality, etc.).
- Psychological: knowledge, beliefs, thoughts, concerns, values, interests, mods, attitudes, ideas, etc.
- Situational: occasion, time, location, who else is there, how the room is set up, room temperature, etc.
perception
The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information to give personal meaning to the communication we receive.
cognitive complexity
Explains how our minds process and store simple to complex information.
stimulus
Something that incites or quickens action, feeling, or thought.
selection
Sorting of one stimulus from another.
selective exposure
The deliberate choices we make to experience or to avoid particular stimuli.
selective attention
Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring or downplaying other stimuli.
selective retention
Processing, storing, and retreival of information that we have already slected, organized, and interpreted.
closure
Filling in of details so that a partially perceived entity appears to be complete.
proximity
The grouping of two or more stimuli that are close to one another.
similarity
The grouping of stimuli that resemble one another in size, shape, color, or other traits.
interpretation
Assigning of meaning to stimuli.
perceptual set
A fixed, previously determined view of events, objects, or people.
stereotyping
The categorizing of events, objects, and people without regard to unique individual characteristics and qualities.
attribution
The complex process through which we attempt to understand the reasons behind other's behaviors.
attribution error
Perceiving others as acting as they do because theu are "that kind of person" rather than because of any external factors that may have influenced their behavior.
culture
Learned behaviors that are communicated from one generation to another to promote individual and social survival.
ethnocentrism
A learned belief that our own culture is superior to all others.
cultural myopia
Percieving one's own culture as superior and having very narrow or shortsighted view of cultures other than your own.
cultural relativism
Taking on a broader worlview and opening our minds to different cultures as merely being different and not judging them as inferior because they are different.
gender
A socially constructed concept related to masculine and feminine behaviors that are learned.
Other Information
How to improve Perception Competencies
- First, we must be active as perceivers.
- Second, we must recognize the uniqueness of our own frame of reference.
- Third, distinguish facts from inferences or assumptions.
- Fourth, be aware of the role that perceptions play in communication, take others' perceptions into account, and avoid the tendency to assume too much about what we perceive.
- Fifth, keep an open mind and remind ourselves that our perceptions may not be complete or totally accurate.
Remember to read the chapter Summary on pages 58 and 59
leadership
An influence process that includes any behavior that helps clarify a group's purpose or guides the group to achieve its goals.
leader
A person who is assigned or selected, or who emerges from a group, to guide or provide direction toward reaching the group's goals.
task needs
Needs related to the content of a task and all behaciors that lead to the completion of it.
maintenance needs
Needs related to organizing and developing a group so that the members can realize personal satisfaction from working together.
initiating structure
A dimension of leadership that focuses on getting the job done.
consideration
A dimension of leadership that focuses on establishing good interpersonal relationships and on being liked by group members.
autocratic leader
A leader who has complete control.
democratic leader
A leader who shares control.
laissez-faire leader
A leader who gives up control.
agenda
A list of all topics to be discussed during a meeting.
question of interpretation
A quiestion that asks for the meaning or eplanation of something.
principled negotiation
A procedure that helps group members negotiate consesus by collaboration through the expression of each differing need and a search for alternatives to meer those needs.
Remember to read the chapter Summary on page 451
general purpose
The overall goal of a speech, usually one of three overlapping functions: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain.
informative speech
A speech that enhances an audience's knowledge and understanding by explaining what something means, how something works, or how something is done.
persuasive speech
A speech that attempts to change listeners' attitudes or behaviors by advocating or trying to gain acceptance of the speaker's point of view.
entertainment speech
A speech that provides enjoyment and amusement.
specific purpose
Single phrase that defines precisely what is to be accomplished in a speech.
thesis
A sentence that states specifically what is going to be discussed in a speech.
Outlining
Arranging materials in a logical sequence, often referred to as the blueprint or skeleton of a speech, and writing out that sequence in a standardized form.
Subordination
Clearly identifies tha hierarchy of ideas: The most important points are main points and are supported by subpoints (that is, they are subordinate to the main points); the outline uses specific rules for the format.
Coordination
Suggests that ideas with the same level of importance use the same kind of numbers (Roman and Arabic) and letters (captitalized and noncapitalized) to provode a visualization of the relationships.
parallelism
Style in which all ideas, main points, subpoints, and sub-subpoints use similar grammatical forms and language patterns.
Other Information
The 3 steps in the Outlining Process
- Create a preliminary outline that identifies the topic and the main points to be covered in the speech.
- Expand the preliminary outline into a full-sentence outline that clearly and fully develops the speech's content.
- Condense the full-sentence outline into a presentational outline to aid delivery.
audience analysis
The collection and interpretation of data about characteristics, attitudes, values, and beliefs of an audience.
audience
The collection of individuals who have come together to watch or listen to someone or something, such as to listen to a speech.
captive participant
A person who is required to hear a particualr speech.
voluntary participant
A person who choses to listen to a particular speech.
demographic analysis
The collection and interpretation of characteristics (age, gender, religion, occupation, and so on) of individuals, excluding values, attitudes, and beliefs.
group
Collection of individuals who have joined together for some common cause or purpose that may be social, professional, recreational, or charitable.
psychological analysis
The collection and interpretation of data about audience members' values, attitudes, and beliefs.
observation
A method of collecting information about an audience in which the speaker watches audience members and notes their behaviors and characteristics.
survey interview
A carefully planned and executed person-to-person question-to-answer session during which the peasker tries to discover specific information that will help in the preparation of a speech.
questionnaire
A set of written questions that is distributed to respondents to gather desired information.
expert opinion
Ideas, testimony, conlusions, or judgments of witnesses or recognizes authorities.
World Wide Web (WWW)
A global information system that allows users to access information from the internet.
testimony
Opinions or conclusions of witnesses or recognized authorities.
example
A simple, representative incident or model that clarifies a point.
brief example
A speficic instance that is used to introduce a topic, drive home a point, or create a desired reponse.
illustration
An extended example, narrative, case history, or anecdote that is striking and memorable.
factual illustration
A report of something that exists or actually happened.
hypothetical illustration
A report of something that could happen, given a specific set of circumstances.
analogy
A comparison of two things that are similar in certain essential characteristics.
figurative analogy
A comparison of things in different categories.
literal analogy
A comparison of members of the same category.
restatement
The expression of the same idea using different words.
logical definition
A definition consisting of a term's dictionary definition and the characteristics that distinguish the term from other members of the same category.
operational definition
A definition that explains how an object or concept works or lists the steps that make up a process.
definition by example
Clarifying a term, not by describing it or giving its meaning but by mentioning or showing an example of it.
statistics
Numerical data that show relationships or summarize or interpret many instances.
Other Information
Steps in the Interview Process (pg. 193-4)
- Establish the purpose of the interview
- Choose the interviewee
- Conduct research prior to the interview
- Record the interview
- Prepare questions
- Organize the interview
- Other considerations
Suggestions for doing Research (pg. 199-200)
- State the clear purpose before starting your research.
- Begin your research early.
- Use computer searches when possible,
- Maintain a bibliography of sources.
- Take notes.
Remember to read the chapter Summary on page 211
organizing
Arranging of ideas and elements into a systematic and meaningful whole.
body
The main content of a speech that develops the speaker's general and specific purposes.
main points
The principal subdivision of a speech.
mind mapping
A visual organizational strategy that uses words or symbols to identify the concepts and their connections to each other.
time-sequence (chronological) pattern
An order of presentation that begins at a particular point in time and continues either forward or backwards.
spatial pattern
An order of presentation in which the content of a speech is organized accoring to relationships in space.
topical pattern
An order of presentation in which the main topic is divided into a series of related subtopics.
transition
A phrase or word ised to link ideas.
signpost
A word, phrase, or short statement that indicates to an audience the direction a speaker will take next.
internal preview
Short statements that give advance warning, or preview, of the point(s) to be covered.
internal summary
A short review statement given at the end of a main point.
introduction
Opening statements that orient the audience to the subject and motivate them to listen.
credibility
A speaker's believability, based on the audience's evaluation of the speaker's competence, eperience, character, and charisma.
conclusion
Closing statements that focus the audience's thoughts on the specific purpose of a speech and bring the most important points together in a condensed and uniform way.