km-abu-2025

km-abu-2025

Knowledge Management


Data, Information, and Knowledge
Understanding the distinctions between data, information, and knowledge is fundamental in organizational learning and decision-making. Each concept represents a stage in the transformation of raw facts into actionable insights.

Data
Data refers to unstructured facts and figures that lack organization, context, or inherent meaning. In their raw form, data have little impact on decision-making because they do not communicate significance until processed. Examples of data include a list of daily sales transactions, temperature readings, or customer feedback ratings. On their own, these raw numbers or observations serve only as unprocessed inputs from which inferences may later be drawn (Davenport & Prusak, 2000).

Information
Information arises when data are organized, structured, and contextualized to provide meaning. Through categorization, calculation, and interpretation, data become relevant and purposeful, revealing trends and patterns. For example, analyzing daily sales transactions into monthly sales reports provides insights into "who bought what, where, when, and how many." Information thus enables managers to answer specific questions, supporting decision-making. While information technology (IT) plays a vital role in transforming data into usable formats, human judgment remains essential in providing context (Bali et al., 2009).

Knowledge
Knowledge goes beyond information by embedding understanding, experience, and action-oriented insight. It is shaped by individual expertise, organizational culture, and shared practices. Davenport and Prusak (2000) describe knowledge as a “fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, expert insight, and grounded intuition.” Unlike static information, knowledge is dynamic, guiding action and decision-making. For example, a sales manager uses past experience, customer behavior insights, and organizational norms to forecast demand and strategize for the future. Knowledge can be treated both as an object (to be stored and managed) and as a process (knowing and acting).

Conclusion
The Data–Information–Knowledge hierarchy highlights the progression from raw, unprocessed facts to actionable insights embedded in human experience. Data provide the foundation, information adds structure and meaning, and knowledge incorporates understanding and expertise. Together, they form the basis of effective decision-making and organizational learning.


Types of Knowledge (Explained with Examples)
1. Explicit Knowledge
* Meaning: This is knowledge that is written down, recorded, or codified so it can be easily stored, transferred, and reused.
* Explanation: Because it is formalized, it can be managed with technology (databases, knowledge management systems, document repositories). The challenge is keeping it up to date and ensuring people know where to find it.
* Examples:
    * A company’s employee handbook or HR policy manual.
    * Product specifications or blueprints.
    * Academic textbooks or research papers.

2. Tacit Knowledge
* Meaning: This is personal knowledge based on experience, intuition, and skills. It is difficult to explain or write down because it is often “in the head” of individuals.
* Explanation: Tacit knowledge is context-specific and deeply tied to action — people often “just know” how to do something without being able to fully explain it. It is usually shared through practice, observation, mentoring, or social interaction rather than documents.
* Examples:
    * A tailor knowing the exact tension to apply when sewing without looking at a manual.
    * A doctor diagnosing a patient based on years of experience.
    * An IT expert troubleshooting errors using intuition and practice.

3. Embedded Knowledge
* Meaning: This is knowledge built into processes, products, routines, and organizational culture. Unlike explicit knowledge, it is not always written down, and unlike tacit knowledge, it is not tied to one person — instead, it is ingrained in “how things are done” in an organization.
* Explanation: Embedded knowledge is often invisible — employees follow rules, habits, or routines without always questioning why. It can be a powerful source of competitive advantage because it shapes the way organizations operate.
* Examples:
    * Standard safety procedures in the aviation industry.
    * A company culture that encourages teamwork and innovation.
    * The way McDonald’s ensures consistent service across the world through embedded routines and processes.


History of Knowledge Management (KM) – Explained
1. Origins of KM
* In the second half of the 20th century, as computers became more common, organizations began to explore how technology could be used to manage knowledge.
* Terms like knowledge bases, expert systems, repositories, group decision support systems, intranets, and computer-supported cooperative work started to appear.
* These were early technological tools designed to store and share information more effectively.
* By the early 1990s, KM emerged as a distinct scientific discipline, moving beyond just technology into a field combining people, processes, and knowledge.
📌 Example: Expert systems in the 1980s tried to “capture” an engineer’s knowledge in a computer program so less experienced staff could use it.

First CKOs:
* Leif Edvinsson (Sweden, Skandia – an insurance company).
* Hubert Saint-Onge (Canada, CIBC – Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce).
📌 Explanation: Just like CFOs manage financial capital, CKOs were appointed to manage “knowledge capital” — the collective expertise and intellectual property of the company.

Ikujiro Nonaka & Hirotaka Takeuchi (Japan, Hitotsubashi University):
* Introduced the SECI model (Socialization, Externalization, Combination, Internalization).
* This model explains how tacit and explicit knowledge interact to create new knowledge.
Example: Nonaka’s SECI model shows how a craftsman’s tacit skill (socialization) can be turned into a training manual (externalization), combined with other knowledge, and finally learned by new workers (internalization).

Perspectives (Schools of Thought) in KM
Over time, KM has been approached from different perspectives:
1. Techno-centric
    * Focus: Technology to support knowledge sharing.
    * Explanation: Believes KM success depends on having the right IT systems.
    * Example: Using intranets, SharePoint, databases, or AI systems to store and share knowledge.
2. Organisational
    * Focus: How organizations can be structured for knowledge flow.
    * Explanation: Believes KM is more about culture, teamwork, and incentives than technology.
    * Example: Google’s culture of collaboration and idea-sharing makes knowledge flow naturally.
3. Ecological
    * Focus: KM as a living system where people, culture, and environment interact like an ecosystem.
    * Explanation: Knowledge grows and adapts like nature, so balance and adaptability are key.
    * Example: Open-source software communities (like Linux) where people, tools, and shared values create a dynamic ecosystem of knowledge.

Core Components of KM
Regardless of the perspective, all KM systems emphasize:
* People → the holders and users of knowledge.
* Processes → how knowledge is created, shared, stored, and applied.
* Technology → the tools that support knowledge management.
* Sometimes extended to culture and structure as enablers.
📌 Example: A hospital’s KM system might include:
* People (doctors, nurses, administrators),
* Processes (protocols for patient care),
* Technology (electronic health records system),
* Culture (encouraging collaboration instead of competition among staff).

Key Aspects of KM
1. Where knowledge exists – in people’s heads (tacit) or in databases/documents (explicit).
2. What knowledge is needed – e.g., for decision-making, innovation, or solving problems.
3. Culture of learning – encouraging people to share rather than hoard knowledge.
4. Knowledge sharing – tools like intranets, wikis, training programs.
5. Timely access – delivering information to the right person at the right time.
6. Knowledge creation – research, brainstorming, collaboration.
7. Strategic alignment – KM should always support business goals.


Benefits of KM
* Improves decision-making
* Reduces duplication of effort
* Encourages innovation
* Preserves organizational memory
* Enhances productivity and performance
   Example: Toyota uses KM to capture employee suggestions for improving manufacturing efficiency, leading to continuous innovation.

Think of KM as a cycle:
👉 Create → Capture → Store → Share → Apply → Refine

Aspects of Knowledge Management

1. Key KM Strategies:
1. Codification (Push Strategy)
    * Knowledge is explicitly encoded into databases or repositories.
    * IT plays a central role in storing and retrieving knowledge.
    * Can include both explicit and tacit knowledge.
    * Example: A company maintains a database of technical troubleshooting guides accessible to all engineers.
2. Personalisation (Pull Strategy)
    * Knowledge is shared directly between individuals on an ad hoc basis.
    * IT is less central; the focus is on direct communication and mentoring.
    * 
2. Organisational Culture
* Culture strongly influences knowledge creation, sharing, and usage.
* A culture that encourages learning, collaboration, and openness is essential for KM success.
* Resistance to change or a competitive, siloed culture can hinder KM initiatives.

3. Organisational Processes
* KM requires effective processes, systems, and environments to support knowledge flow.
* This includes structured workflows, training programs, and decision-making processes.
📌 Example: Standardized reporting systems allow insights from one team to be shared across the company efficiently.

4. Management & Leadership
* KM requires competent leadership at all levels.
* Roles may include:
    * CKO (Chief Knowledge Officer)
    * Knowledge Managers
    * Knowledge Brokers
📌 Example: CKOs ensure that strategic KM initiatives align with company goals and facilitate knowledge sharing.

5. Technology
* KM tools should be fit-for-purpose, supporting the organization’s knowledge strategy.
* Over-reliance on tools without addressing culture, processes, and leadership often leads to failure.
📌 Example: A company may implement SharePoint for knowledge storage but fail if employees are not motivated to update or use it.

6. Politics & Long-Term Support
* KM initiatives often involve all organizational functions and can be costly.
* Sustaining support requires management buy-in and alignment with strategic goals.


Motivations for Knowledge Management
1. Increasing Knowledge Content in Products & Services
2. Shorter New Product Development Cycles
3. Facilitating Innovation and Organizational Learning
4. Leveraging Expertise Across the Organization
5. Increasing Network Connectivity
6. Managing Business Environments & Gaining Insights
7 Managing Intellectual Capital and Workforce Assets

Challenges & Barriers to KM
Even though KM is valuable, knowledge sharing is often difficult due to:
1. Time constraints – employees may lack time to document or share knowledge.
2. Trust issues – people may hesitate to share knowledge for fear of losing status or job security.
3. Cultural barriers – organizations without a culture of collaboration struggle to implement KM.
4. Lack of technology support – insufficient tools to store, access, or share knowledge efficiently.

KM technologies
KM technologies are tools that help capture, store, share, and use knowledge in organizations. They make collaboration easier, speed up workflows, and ensure people can access the right knowledge when needed

1. Groupware
* Explanation: Software that helps groups collaborate and share information.
* Example: Microsoft Teams, Slack.

2. Workflow
* Explanation: Tools that automate business processes like document approvals and task routing.
* Example: A workflow system notifies a manager when an employee submits a leave request.
3. Content/Document Management Systems (CMS/DMS)
* Explanation: Systems to create, store, organize, and control access to content/documents.
* Example: SharePoint, Documentum, Jira Confluence, GitHub, Google Drive.
4. Enterprise Portals
* Explanation: A central website where employees access information, documents, and tools.
* Example: Company intranet, HR portals, CRMS, Microsoft dynamics
5. E-Learning
* Explanation: Online learning platforms for staff training and education.
* Example: Coursera for Business, Moodle, LinkedIn Learning.
6. Scheduling and Planning
* Explanation: Tools for scheduling meetings, deadlines, and planning projects.
* Example: Microsoft Outlook, Google Calendar, Microsoft Project.
7. Telepresence
* Explanation: Technology that allows virtual meetings as if participants were physically present.
* Example: Zoom, Cisco TelePresence, Google Meet.


Importance of Knowledge Management (KM)
1. Treats Knowledge as an Asset
    * KM emphasizes that knowledge is not just an abstract idea but a valuable resource like money, equipment, or staff.
    * This allows organizations to protect, grow, and use their knowledge strategically.
2. Helps Firms Learn from Past Mistakes and Successes
    * By capturing experiences (both good and bad), firms avoid repeating mistakes and can replicate successful strategies.
    * Example: A company documents how a past product launch failed due to poor timing and uses that knowledge to plan better future launches.
3. Better Utilization of Knowledge Across Departments
    * KM makes it possible to reuse knowledge in different areas of the company.
    * Example: Marketing research insights could be used by product development to design better features.
4. Transforms Old Knowledge into New Solutions
    * Past processes, documents, or strategies can be adapted and modified for current needs.
    * Example: A customer service workflow from a retail branch can be adjusted to work for an online support system.
5. Focus on Building Competencies & Skills
6. Enhances Innovation
7. Protects Core Knowledge and Competencies

Forms of Information (Buckland, 1991)
1. Information-as-Process
    * Information is seen as the act of informing (transmission of knowledge).
    * Example: A teacher explaining a math formula to students.
2. Information-as-Knowledge
    * Information becomes knowledge when it imparts understanding to an individual.
    * Example: Learning that "water boils at 100°C" and remembering it for later use.
3. Information-as-Thing
    * Information is tangible when stored in physical form like documents, data files, or books.
    * Example: A printed bank statement, a PDF research paper.

IM vs KM
Explicit - Tacit
Technology - People, Process and Mgt
Data and Info - Structured Info, Understanding and Wisdom
Know what(Facts and Numbers - Know how(Action,Experience,Innovation)
Easy to copy - Hard to copy

Organisational Knowledge
Organisational knowledge is the collective knowledge within an organization that can be used to improve performance, make decisions, and achieve goals.
* It includes both tacit knowledge (skills and experiences in people’s minds) and explicit knowledge (documents, manuals, databases).
* This knowledge can exist within individuals, teams, or at the organizational level.
Example
* A company has a project management manual (explicit knowledge) and experienced project managers (tacit knowledge).
* When these are combined in planning a new project, the organization leverages its organisational knowledge to deliver better results.

Resources of Organisational Knowledge
1. Individual Knowledge : Knowledge that exists within a person, often tacit (experience-based) but can also be explicit (written notes).
2. Group/Community Knowledge : Knowledge shared within a group but not necessarily with the entire organization. Can be tacit, explicit, or embedded.
3. Structural Knowledge : Knowledge embedded in processes, routines, culture, or systems. May be known by many, few, or even nobody directly, but it guides behavior and decisions.
4. Organisational Knowledge : combining the knowledge of multiple subunits or groups in an organization. Leads to new tacit and explicit knowledge.
5. Extra-Organisational Knowledge : Knowledge outside the organization that can improve performance. Includes both explicit knowledge (publications, research papers) and tacit knowledge (practices from external communities or industry networks).

KM is therefore dependent on the understanding and
management of organisational learning, organisational memory, knowledge
sharing, knowledge creation, and organisational culture.

Explicit - Content framework
Tacit - Relational framework


Organisational memory 
Refers to the collective ability to generate, store and retrieve knowledge and information
Just like humans have memory (to acquire, retain, and retrieve knowledge), organisations also develop a kind of collective memory. This memory isn’t just in one person’s head—it’s spread across processes, culture, systems, and people in the organisation.

Remember that organisational memory is not stored in one place, but spread across individuals, culture, processes, structures, and even external actors. This makes managing it complex but also powerful for avoiding mistakes and repeating successes.

Walsh & Ungson (1991) describe organisational memory as the collective store of knowledge that influences current and future decision-making

How Organisational Memory Works
1. Knowledge is generated – through experiences, decisions, successes, failures.
    * Example: A company tries launching a new product, and it fails. The lessons learned become part of its memory.
2. Knowledge is stored – in people (employees), processes, documents, databases, and culture.
    * Example: The marketing team keeps case studies and reports of past campaigns.
3. Knowledge is retrieved – when making decisions in the present.
    * Example: Before launching a new product, the company reviews past product launch reports.

Key Insights from Walsh & Ungson
* History matters: Past events and their outcomes shape future decisions.
* Shared interpretations: Over time, people within the organisation form collective understandings (like “we don’t enter markets without proper research”).
* Continuity despite turnover: Even if individuals leave, the organisation retains memory through documents, policies, and culture.

Examples
* Positive Example:
Toyota has a culture of continuous improvement (Kaizen). Even when employees leave, the philosophy and processes stay behind, guiding new employees.
* Negative Example:
A company that suffered a cyberattack but didn’t properly document the lessons may repeat the same mistakes later (weak organisational memory).

Why Organisational Memory is Important
✅ Prevents repeating mistakes.
✅ Helps organisations build on past successes.
✅ Ensures stability even when employees leave.
✅ Provides a foundation for innovation (using old knowledge in new ways).


5 main facilities (repositories) where knowledge is retained
1. Individuals
* Meaning: Knowledge stored in people’s minds through their skills, expertise, and experiences.
* Example: A senior HR manager remembers how the company handled a strike five years ago and uses that knowledge to guide negotiations today.

2. Culture
* Meaning: Shared values, norms, beliefs, and language that guide how things are done in the organisation.
* Example: In Toyota, the culture of Kaizen (continuous improvement) ensures employees are always looking for ways to enhance processes.

3. Transformations
* Meaning: Formalised procedures, routines, or systems that embed past learning into operations.
* Example: After a cyberattack, a bank develops strict security protocols and backup systems. These procedures are organisational memory in action.

4. Structures
* Meaning: Social and organisational structures that shape communication and interaction patterns. This includes both formal structures (reporting lines) and informal networks (who people turn to for advice).
* Example: A company’s project team structure enables knowledge sharing across departments. Informally, staff know that “If you have a payroll issue, ask Janet in Finance.”

5. External Activities
* Meaning: Knowledge stored outside the organisation in its environment.
* Example: Former employees who later consult for the company, government databases on industry standards, or competitor reports.


Stages in Organisational Memory
1. Acquisition: Gathering knowledge from past experiences and decisions.
    * Example: Learning from a failed product launch.
2. Retention: Storing the knowledge in one of the five facilities above.
    * Example: Documenting lessons in a project report or embedding them into procedures.
3. Retrieval: Bringing out knowledge when needed. Can be:
    * Automatic: Intuitive recall, e.g., an experienced engineer “just knows” what to do.
    * Controlled: Deliberate search, e.g., looking up past reports in the database.

Types of Knowledge in Retention (Ramage & Reif, 1996)
1. Artefacts of Cooperation (Explicit Knowledge):
    * Hard, visible evidence like reports, meeting minutes, FAQs.
    * Example: Training manuals.
2. Knowledge of the Organisation qua Entity (Tacit Knowledge):
    * Subtle knowledge about culture, politics, and “how things are done.”
    * Example: Knowing which manager is most influential when pushing for project approval.


Two Perspectives on Organisational Memory
IT: Focuses on storage and retrieval tools like databases, document management, and data warehouses
Organisational Development (OD) Perspective: Focuses on tacit knowledge, people, coaching, and informal knowledge sharing



Organisational Learning

The process of creating, retaining, and transferring knowledge within an organisation. Over time, as organisations gain experience, they generate knowledge that can improve performance across various areas (e.g., efficiency, innovation, investor relations).

Organisational learning transforms experience into actionable knowledge, retains it through systems and processes, and spreads it across the organisation. This continuous cycle builds adaptability, innovation, and long-term competitive advantage.

Key Elements
Knowledge Creation
* Derived from experience at multiple levels:
    * Individual – personal learning from tasks and exposure.
    * Group – shared understanding within teams/communities.
    * Organisational – combined knowledge across units.
    * Inter-organisational – learning from external collaborations.
Knowledge Retention
* Prevents knowledge loss when individuals leave.
* Achieved through repositories (e.g., documentation, processes, routines, systems, networks).
Knowledge Transfer
* Spreading knowledge throughout divisions so the organisation benefits collectively.
* Without transfer, individual learning remains isolated.

Challenges
* Individuals may withhold knowledge or exit the organisation, causing knowledge loss.
* Success depends on embedding knowledge into organisational structures, not just individuals.

Units of Learning
1. Individual Learning
The smallest unit of learning. An individual acquires new skills, ideas, or knowledge. Productivity may increase as the person gains expertise.
Risk: If knowledge is not shared and the individual leaves, the group loses this learning.

2. Group Learning
Learning that occurs when members of a group acquire, share, and combine knowledge through experience together.
Two Views:
1. Group takes action → receives feedback → modifies future action.
2. An individual shares knowledge → group collectively learns.

3. Organisational Learning
How an organisation creates, organises, and applies knowledge related to its functions and culture. Adapt to changing environments, operate under uncertainty, and improve efficiency.

4 Inter-Organisational Learning
When organisations collaborate and learn from each other, often through alliances, partnerships, or networks.

Learning flows upward — from individuals to groups, from groups to the whole organisation, and across organisations. Each level is critical to knowledge management, but success depends on capturing and sharing learning so it doesn’t remain isolated at the lower levels.


Approaches to organisational learning

1. Cognitive (Information Processing) Approach
The organisation is seen as a single, large "brain." Just like an individual processes information, the organisation collectively processes, stores, and uses knowledge
This approach is top-down and system-focused (emphasis on structures, databases, memory).

2. Community-Based Approach (Communities of Practice)
Learning happens in networks of people inside the organisation. Employees and practitioners learn through interaction, collaboration, and shared practice, not just formal systems.
This approach is bottom-up and people-focused (emphasis on collaboration and social learning)

These two approaches are not opposites — they are complementary.
A good organisation uses both: structured knowledge systems (cognitive) + social networks of practitioners (community).


Organisational Learning Theory (Company Level)
Argyris & Schön (1978)
* They say learning happens when actual outcomes differ from expected outcomes.
* To fix this gap, individuals (or groups) engage in organisational inquiry — they question, interact, brainstorm, and adapt.
* This interaction often goes beyond formal rules and creates learning opportunities.
Their Two Key Concepts:
Espoused Theory: The “official” or formal rules of the company. What organisations say people should do.
Theory-in-Use: The actual way employees behave in practice (informal, social, adaptive). What people really do when solving problems.

Levitt & March (1996)
Organisations don’t store events themselves, but the lessons learned from those events.

3 Levels/Types of Learning
1. Single-Loop Learning 
Error correction – the organisation makes adjustments when outcomes do not meet expectations, without questioning the underlying values or assumptions.
Doing things better, but not questioning if we’re doing the right things.
2. Double-Loop Learning
Goes deeper – not only correcting errors, but also examining and changing the underlying values, strategies, and assumptions that guide actions.
Doing the right things, not just doing things better.
3. Deutero-Learning (Learning How to Learn)
The organisation reflects on and improves its learning processes themselves. It’s a higher-order learning where companies ask, “How can we learn better as an organisation?”
Learning to improve how learning happens.

Organisational Culture
Collective values, beliefs, and principles of member. It is shaped by history, product, market, technology, strategy, employees, management style, and national culture.

Organisational Learning = Process of learning in organisations.
Learning Organisation = The ideal environment for learning, KM, and innovation.

A learning organisation is one that continuously improves by encouraging individuals and teams to acquire, share, and apply knowledge. Unlike ordinary organisations, learning organisations don’t just react to problems — they adapt and innovate.
Toyota is famous for being a learning organisation. Its “Kaizen” philosophy (continuous improvement) encourages every employee, even factory workers, to suggest improvements. Many of these small ideas compound into big competitive advantages

Senge’s Five Dimensions of a Learning Organisation
1. Systems Thinking
This is the ability to see the organisation as a whole system rather than isolated departments.
Leaders must understand how changes in one part affect the whole organisation.
Example:
If a company cuts costs in customer service to save money, it may lead to customer dissatisfaction, which reduces sales and ultimately harms profits.

2. Personal Mastery
The commitment of individuals to continuous self-improvement (skills, mindset, productivity).
It’s about striving for excellence and aligning personal goals with organisational goals.
Example:
At Google, employees are encouraged to spend 20% of their time on projects they’re passionate about (personal mastery). This has led to innovations like Gmail and Google News.

3. Mental Models
* These are the deep assumptions and beliefs we hold that shape how we act.
* In a learning organisation, leaders challenge outdated assumptions and encourage fresh thinking.
Example:
For years, Blockbuster assumed people preferred renting DVDs in-store. Their mental model blinded them to Netflix’s streaming model. Netflix, by contrast, challenged the assumption that “people need DVDs” and redefined movie rentals.

4. Building Shared Vision
* A vision only becomes powerful when it’s shared by everyone, not just declared by the CEO.
* Leaders must inspire people to “own” the vision, not just follow orders.
Example:
Elon Musk’s vision at Tesla (“accelerate the world’s transition to sustainable energy”) is shared by employees and even customers. It motivates engineers to work long hours and inspires buyers to feel part of a movement, not just a transaction.

5. Team Learning
Learning happens best in groups through collaboration, dialogue, and problem-solving. Teams build on each other’s strengths to reach goals faster.
Example:
In NASA’s Apollo missions, team learning was crucial. Astronauts, engineers, and scientists collaborated intensively, testing ideas and sharing lessons from mistakes — which made landing on the moon possible.

The Role of Leadership (Senge’s Three Roles)

1. Leader as Designer
Leaders design the environment where learning happens.
Instead of micromanaging, they create structures, strategies, and policies that encourage innovation.
Example:
Satya Nadella at Microsoft redesigned the culture from “know-it-all” to “learn-it-all.” By promoting curiosity and collaboration, Microsoft reinvented itself and tripled its market value.

2. Leader as Teacher
Leaders act as coaches who help others see reality more clearly.
They challenge assumptions and encourage new ways of thinking
At Toyota, managers use “the 5 Whys” technique to teach problem-solving. Instead of giving solutions, leaders ask employees to dig deeper into the root cause of problems.

3. Leader as Steward
Leaders serve a greater purpose beyond personal gain.
They act as caretakers of the organisation’s mission and values.
Example:
Paul Polman, former CEO of Unilever, saw himself as a steward of sustainability. He pushed long-term goals like reducing environmental impact and improving global health — even when it didn’t bring immediate profits.


Criteria for Successful Explicit Knowledge Sharing
1. Articulation – Can the user define what they need?
For knowledge sharing to work, the knowledge seeker must clearly express their need.
If requests are vague, they get irrelevant or overwhelming information.
Example:
An employee asking IT for “help with Excel” is too vague. But asking “how to create a pivot table in Excel 365 for sales data” makes it possible to deliver useful knowledge.

2. Awareness – Do people know the knowledge exists?
Even if valuable knowledge is stored, it’s useless if people don’t know about it.
Organisations must promote awareness through knowledge directories, knowledge maps, or corporate yellow pages (lists of experts).

3. Access – Can people actually reach the knowledge?
Knowledge should be easy to retrieve — not hidden behind permissions, poor search tools, or complex systems.
User-friendly intranets, searchable databases, and cloud platforms are essential.

4. Guidance – Is there support to make sense of knowledge?
Too much information leads to overload.
Knowledge managers help by organising, tagging, and clarifying knowledge.
They guide employees on how to contribute knowledge and how to interpret it.

5. Completeness – Is both official and self-published knowledge included?
Centrally managed knowledge: Formal, validated, but slow to publish (e.g., official manuals).
Self-published knowledge: Fast, practical, but may be unreliable (e.g., personal blogs, quick guides).
A balance is needed between the two.


Tacit Knowledge Sharing
Sharing this kind of knowledge requires socialisation — interaction between people rather than documents or databases, informal communication channels, expert finder

Key Factors (Davenport & Prusak, 2000):
1. Informal Networks
People share tacit knowledge through daily interactions at work, not just in meetings.
These networks cut across hierarchies and departments, making them hard to track formally.
Example: A junior developer learning coding shortcuts from a senior colleague during coffee breaks.
2. Support from Management
3. Value of Chaos (Unstructured Work)
4. Codification is Difficult

Embedded knowledge sharing  
A process whereby embedded knowledge is passed on from one product, routine, or process to another
Transferred by scenario planning, after action reviews, and management training

3 roles for knowledge reuse (Markus, 2001)

1. Knowledge Producer : 
The person who creates the original knowledge.
Without producers, there would be nothing to reuse. Their main challenge is to capture knowledge in a usable way.

2. Knowledge Intermediary
The person (or system) that organizes, packages, and prepares knowledge for others to use.
Indexing, categorization, editing, mapping, publishing, standardizing
The intermediary ensures knowledge is not just created but also accessible and retrievable.

2 Types of general Knowledge Reuse(Fruchter & Demian, 2002)
1. Internal Reuse 
This is when someone reuses their own knowledge later.
Example: A software engineer documents how they solved a complex bug. Six months later, they face a similar bug and reuse their own notes instead of figuring it out from scratch

2. External Reuse
This is when someone uses knowledge created by another person. This has a higher failure rate because context may be missing.
Examples
A new employee tries to understand a process by reading old reports written by another team. If the report lacks context, they may misinterpret it.
A marketing team in Lagos tries to apply a sales strategy written by their counterparts in New York but fails because local conditions differ.

Markus’s (2001) four reuse situations (which expand on internal/external)
3. Shared Work Producers
Who? Teams working together and reusing knowledge they created.
Challenge: Forgetting the rationale behind past decisions.
Example
A product design team creates specifications for a mobile app. Months later, they need to update the app but cannot remember why certain design choices were made. Without detailed rationale, reuse is incomplete.

4. Shared Work Practitioners
Who? People in similar roles but in different locations/contexts.
Focus: Learning how to do something or why it works.
Example
Doctors in different hospitals sharing surgical best practices for similar types of operations.

5. Expertise-Seeking Novices
Who? People new to an area who seek expert knowledge.
Challenge: They don’t know how to frame the right questions or judge quality.
Example
A junior data analyst tries to understand machine learning models by reading research papers but struggles because they don’t fully grasp the terminology.

6. Miners of Secondary Knowledge
Who? People trying to extract knowledge from unrelated contexts to apply elsewhere.
Challenge: Different contexts → requires sophisticated search, interpretation, or mining.
Example
A retail company mines customer purchase data to discover patterns they can apply in logistics planning.

Managing Knowledge Creation
Management encourages sharing (tacit + explicit).
They create the right environment (experimentation, cross-teams).
They provide systems (groupware, collaboration tools).
They deliver relevant information (real-time IT systems).